{"title":"DNA","authors":"Eduardo E. Benarroch","doi":"10.1093/med/9780190948894.003.0004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190948894.003.0004","url":null,"abstract":"The DNA contains the information that determines the cell phenotype. Epigenetic regulation of DNA transcription, repair of DNA damage, and tight control of the cell cycle are fundamental cell processes that determine the cellular heterogeneity, survival, plasticity, and repair in the nervous system. Epigenetics refers to heritable changes in gene expression that are independent of the DNA sequence (genetic code). Epigenetic mechanisms include: DNA methylation, histone and chromatin modifications, and effects of noncoding RNAs. Specific mutations in genes along these pathways can be associated with both neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders. To maintain genomic stability, cells activate a DNA damage response that detects and repairs the damaged DNA cycle. The elucidation of these mechanisms has led to development of novel approaches including DNA editing for treatment.","PeriodicalId":196283,"journal":{"name":"Neuroscience for Clinicians","volume":"53 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125677681","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Episodic Memory","authors":"Eduardo E. Benarroch","doi":"10.1093/med/9780190948894.003.0040","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190948894.003.0040","url":null,"abstract":"The medial temporal lobe, including the hippocampus and surrounding areas, is critical for episodic memory, which is the ability to learn, store, and retrieve events of daily life. The hippocampal circuits provide a framework for relating experiences that constitute the individual autobiographic events. Information processed in the hippocampus is conveyed back to the neocortex for consolidation of episodic memories. The medial temporal lobe participates in an anterior circuit for recognition based on familiarity and a posterior circuit involved in visual navigation. These circuits are also components of the default mode network involved in processing of inner thoughts. The medial temporal lobe circuits are susceptible to aging, Alzheimer disease, and other disorders causing episodic memory disturbances.","PeriodicalId":196283,"journal":{"name":"Neuroscience for Clinicians","volume":"24 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130592398","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Executive Control","authors":"E. Benarroch","doi":"10.1093/med/9780190948894.003.0042","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190948894.003.0042","url":null,"abstract":"Attention, working memory, decision-making, and executive control are fundamental cognitive functions that involve large-scale networks largely defined on the basis of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies. These networks include areas of the lateral and medial prefrontal, orbitofrontal, anterior, and midcingulate cortices, anterior insula, and lateral and medial posterior parietal cortices as well as areas of the temporal lobe and temporoparietal junction. These networks include the dorsal and ventral attention networks, frontoparietal, cingulo-opercular and salience control networks, and the default mode network. These networks are located along a hierarchical gradient of cortical organization. Dysfunction of large-scale cortical networks is a cardinal feature of neurodegenerative dementias and psychiatric disorders.","PeriodicalId":196283,"journal":{"name":"Neuroscience for Clinicians","volume":"4 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123651269","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Cerebellar Circuits","authors":"E. Benarroch","doi":"10.1093/med/9780190948894.003.0033","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190948894.003.0033","url":null,"abstract":"The cerebellum has a critical role in control of timing and coordination of movement, acquisition of skills, and cognitive and affective functions. It participates in motor control via both immediate online adjustments of motor performance and long-term adaptive motor learning, referred to as supervised or error-based learning. Most of the cerebellum is interconnected with association areas of the cerebral cortex. The cerebellum is a major target of genetic, degenerative, metabolic, and immune disorders. Experimental evidence indicates that disrupted Purkinje cell pacemaking activity and synaptic plasticity in the cerebellum have a major role in the pathophysiology of ataxia. The cerebellar circuits also have a major role in the pathophysiology of different types of tremor.","PeriodicalId":196283,"journal":{"name":"Neuroscience for Clinicians","volume":"8 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126100632","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Cholinergic Transmission","authors":"E. Benarroch","doi":"10.1093/med/9780190948894.003.0019","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190948894.003.0019","url":null,"abstract":"Acetylcholine (ACh) is a major neurotransmitter in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Cholinergic neurons in the central nervous system include the basal forebrain cholinergic group that projects to the cerebral cortex and has a major role in attention, sensory processing, and memory; the mesopontine group that projects to the thalamus, basal ganglia, and brainstem areas and is involved in arousal, reward, and control of muscle tone; and large aspiny neurons of the striatum controlling basal ganglia function. In the periphery, ACh is the neurotransmitter of motor neurons innervating skeletal muscle; preganglionic neurons innervating autonomic ganglia; and parasympathetic, enteric, and sudomotor sympathetic neurons. Acetylcholine acts via nicotinic receptors to elicit fast excitation and several subtypes of muscarinic receptors that exert a variety of modulatory actions. Given the widespread distribution and targets of ACh, cholinergic systems have a major role in a variety of neurologic disorders, including Alzheimer disease, neuromuscular transmission defects, and autonomic manifestation of autoimmune diseases, drugs, or toxins.","PeriodicalId":196283,"journal":{"name":"Neuroscience for Clinicians","volume":"19 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129037969","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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