New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science最新文献

{"title":"Science, policy, and sustainable indigenous forestry in New Zealand","authors":"M. McGlone, P. Bellingham, S. Richardson","doi":"10.33494/nzjfs522022x182x","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.33494/nzjfs522022x182x","url":null,"abstract":"Background: Over 80% of New Zealand’s indigenous forests are in public ownership with logging prohibited, and logging of private indigenous forests is restricted to sustainable harvesting only. Such limitations are highly unusual globally and were imposed only in the last few decades of the 20th century. Previously, the national goal had been indigenous wood production in perpetuity. Here we review the role of forestry science in this outcome, and in particular in relation to the policies and practices adopted by the New Zealand Forest Service.\u0000Methods: Literature review\u0000Results: As early as 1900, it was recognised that economically viable management of indigenous forests for timber production was marginal at best. Nevertheless, the Forest Service, from its formation in 1919 to its abolition in 1987, advocated sustainable commercial management of indigenous forests. However, it failed to bring any significant areas under such management nor prevented conversion of substantial tracts of old-growth forest to exotic plantations or agriculture. Indigenous forest logging would have continued until commercial exhaustion of tall conifer species if a confluence of factors (urbanization, political upheaval, rise of an assertive conservation movement, and declining economic contribution) had not weakened the influence of provincial logging advocacy. Forestry research played a minor role in this saga as it focused on the technical issues of indigenous silviculture (e.g., coupe vs group vs single-tree harvesting methods) while the main drivers of change were economic, social, and cultural.\u0000Conclusions: Commercially valuable indigenous forests were protected only when the political cost of continuing logging was greater than that of halting it. However, it is an open question if the current policy settings will remain. Changes in governance (including increased Māori participation), land use change, planted indigenous forests and formation of exotic-indigenous forest communities will affect public attitudes as regards their use. If indigenous forestry science is to be of more consequence than in the past, New Zealand will need clear forestry goals and policies to deal with these changed circumstances, and the will to implement them.","PeriodicalId":19172,"journal":{"name":"New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2022-03-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48441977","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Selection of Pinus spp. progenies in Lavras (Minas Gerais, Brazil) at 36 months of age","authors":"E. Nieri, A. C. Porto, Rodolfo Soares de Almeida, Lucas Amaral de Melo, E. Resende, Generci Assis Neves, Luana Maria dos Santos, Júlio Cézar Tannure Faria","doi":"10.33494/nzjfs522022x116x","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.33494/nzjfs522022x116x","url":null,"abstract":"Background: The selection of superior genotypes and adapted to the edaphoclimatic conditions of the region of the introduction produces gains in productivity for forest stands. The objective of this study was to select progenies of Pinus spp. planted in Lavras, Minas Gerais (MG), Brazil.\u0000Methods: The experimental site was located on dystrophic Haplic Cambisol. The progeny test was designed as a randomised complete block with 30 replicates and single plot. The treatments corresponded to one progeny of Pinus massoniana, three Pinus caribaea var. bahamensis and 33 Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis arranged with a 3x3 m spacing. The traits height (H), diameter at breast height (DBH) and crown projection area (CPA) were measured at 36 months of age.\u0000Results: The results showed that heritability in the narrow sense was 0.24 for DBH, 0.27 for H and 0.50 for CPA. The DBH and H traits showed a high-magnitude positive correlation. The P7, P15, P27, P31 and P33 progenies showed better performance than the other progenies for the evaluated traits. Direct and indirect selection showed similar gains, which favors the use of indirect selection; i.e., when selecting progenies for DBH, progenies with better performance in H are also selected. Additionally, DBH may be used at advanced ages given the difficulty of measuring height. The progeny of Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis showed superior performance compared with Pinus caribaea var. bahamensis and Pinus massoniana for the region of Lavras, MG.\u0000Conclusions: This study suggests the possibility of expanding the production of Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis in the region of Lavras with progenies P7, P15, P27, P31 and P33, because in the initial assessments they showed greater adaptability to the edaphoclimatic conditions. Nevertheless, performing a future selection with the aim of evaluating resin production is recommended.\u0000 ","PeriodicalId":19172,"journal":{"name":"New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2022-02-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"49633509","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Effect of inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on growth of Catalpa bungei","authors":"Panpan Meng, W. Chen, H. Feng, Shouxia Zhang, Junhui Wang, Wenjun Ma, Guijuan Yang, Chunyan Wang","doi":"10.33494/nzjfs522022x160x","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.33494/nzjfs522022x160x","url":null,"abstract":"Background: Catalpa bungei is a well-known, valuable, ornamental, high-quality timber tree traditionally cultivated in China because of its excellent quality, decay resistance, wide applicability, and attractive form. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF) on the transplant survival rate and growth of C. bungei seedlings under greenhouse conditions.\u0000Methods: Two treatments were applied in a completely randomized experimental design: inoculation with Rhizophagus intraradices, and, as a control, soil without inoculum.\u0000Results: Four months after inoculation, AMF had colonized 76.05% of plant roots and significantly improved plant growth. With the establishment of the symbiotic relationship, AMF inoculation significantly improved the seedling transplant survival rate by 20%, promoted major growth traits (plant height, basal diameter, leaf area, and specific leaf area), accelerated biomass accumulation (roots, stems, and leaves), and changed the biomass allocation patterns. In addition, compared with non-inoculated treatments, inoculation with AMF increased photosynthetic parameters and chlorophyll contents, elevated major root morphological parameters, changed the proportion of particle sizes of soil micro-aggregates, and promoted the accumulation of nutrients in roots and leaves.\u0000Conclusions: The effects on transplant survival, growth and development were more pronounced in C. bungei seedlings inoculated with R. intraradices. Mycorrhizal seedlings of C. bungei can therefore be widely applied in plant transplantation and production practices.","PeriodicalId":19172,"journal":{"name":"New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2022-02-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45158342","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Diameter distribution model development of tropical hybrid Eucalyptus clonal plantations in Sumatera, Indonesia: A comparison of estimation methods","authors":"Joni Waldy, John A. Kershaw Jr., A. Weiskittel, M. Ducey","doi":"10.33494/nzjfs522022x151x","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.33494/nzjfs522022x151x","url":null,"abstract":"Background: Effective forest management and planning often requires information about the distribution of volume by size and product classes. Size-class models describe the diameter distribution and provide information by diameter class, such as the number of trees, basal area, and volume per unit of area. A successful diameter-distribution model requires high flexibility yet robust prediction of its parameters. To our knowledge, there are no studies regarding diameter distribution models for Eucalyptus hybrids in Indonesia. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare different recovery methods for predicting parameters of the 3-parameter Weibull distribution for characterising diameter distributions of Eucalyptus hybrid clone plantations, on Sumatera Island of Indonesia.\u0000Methods: The parameter recovery approach was proposed to be compatible with stand-average growth and yield models developed based on the same data. Three approaches where compared: moment-based recovery, percentile-based prediction and hybrid methods. The ultimate goal was to recover Weibull parameters from future stand attributes, which were predicted from current stand attributes using regression models.\u0000Results: In this study, the moment method was found to give the overall lowest mean error-index and Kolmogorov– Smirnov (KS) statistic, followed by the hybrid and percentile methods. The moment-based method better fit long tails on both sides of the distribution and exhibited slightly greater flexibility in describing plots with larger variance than the other methods.\u0000Conclusions: The Weibull approach appeared relatively robust in determining diameter distributions of Eucalyptus hybrid clone plantation in Indonesia, yet some refinements may be necessary to characterize more complex distributions.","PeriodicalId":19172,"journal":{"name":"New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2022-01-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46792294","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Effect of chemical modification and heat treatment on biological durability and dimensional stability of Pinus roxburghii Sarg.","authors":"Ajmal Samani, Sauradipta Ganguly, Sanjeet Kumar Hom","doi":"10.33494/nzjfs512021x143x","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.33494/nzjfs512021x143x","url":null,"abstract":"Background: Depleting supplies of wood species with inherent natural durability has resulted in the focus being shifted to non-durable plantation grown and imported timber. Despite its abundant availability and better treatability, the use of Pinus roxburghii is limited to packing cases, crates, shutters, door and window frame, carpentry and joinery items due to its nondurable nature. Hence, to promote use of such timber for applications such as decking, cladding and facade elements chemical modification with a combination of citric acid and sodium hypophosphite, and heat treatment were explored to improve its service life.\u0000Methods: Chemical modification was performed using a water solution of citric acid (6.9%) and sodium hypophosphite (6.5%) followed by curing at 140°C for 8 hrs. Dimensional stability was determined by estimating the volumetric swelling coefficient and anti-swelling efficiency (ASE) of treated and control samples. Durability against fungus and termites was evaluated using a soil block bioassay and termite mound test as per standard methods.\u0000Results: Both chemical modification and heat treatment of P. roxburghii resulted in enhanced dimensional stability and biological durability compared to the untreated controls. Chemical modification and heat treatment resulted in 23.05% and 18.37% volumetric ASE, respectively. Results showed that a highly perishable species became significantly more durable after chemical modification, exhibiting 5–6 times less mass loss by termites in comparison to the controls. Wood samples modified with citric acid showed excellent resistance to both white and brown rot fungi and exhibited 14-15 times less reduction in mass compared with untreated samples.\u0000Conclusions: Citric acid chemical modification is an environment friendly process that improved the dimensional stability as well as resistance against biodegradation. These studies may provide valuable inputs to establish this mode of chemical modification as a cost-effective alternative to other chemicals for wood preservation. The concentrations of the chemicals and temperature for fixation may be varied to establish an optimum combination for best output.","PeriodicalId":19172,"journal":{"name":"New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2021-12-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47512752","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Ecophysiological response of Eucalyptus camaldulensis to dust and lead pollution","authors":"M. Nawaz, M. Rashid, M. Z. Arif, M. Sabir, T. H. Farooq, S. Gul, N. Gautam","doi":"10.33494/nzjfs512021x145x","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.33494/nzjfs512021x145x","url":null,"abstract":"Background: Air and soil pollution are among the main concerns in urban areas worldwide, and dust and heavy metals are major contributors to environmental pollution. Lead (Pb) is a highly toxic heavy metal that badly affects human health as well as plant's survival and growth. Vegetation can play an important role in ameliorating the effects of these pollutants. Eucalyptus camaldulensis is well adapted and cultivated throughout a wide range of urban environments from temperate to tropical climates.\u0000Methods: A 90 days experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of lead (Pb) and dust pollution on the growth performance of young E. camaldulensis plants. Four months old seedlings were treated with a factorial combinations of Pb (0,10 and 20 mg/l applied in irrigation) and dust levels (0,5 and 10 g applied on foliage).\u0000Results: All morphological traits (root length, shoot length, stem diameter) and biomass (root and shoot, fresh and dry mass) of E. camaldulensis were significantly reduced when exposed to higher Pb and dust levels. The highest Pb treatments exhibited greater Pb accumulation in plant roots (23.54 ± 1.61 mg/kg), shoots (15.53 ± 1.98 mg/kg), and leaves (13.89 ± 1.49 mg/kg). Dust load on leaves was greater (72.78 ± 8.1 mg/cm2) for those treatments with higher dust and Pb additions compared to the control (16.11 ± 2.0 mg/cm2). Chlorophyll content was greater at the start of the experiment (68.78 ± 0.74 mg.g-1FW) and progressively decreased over time consistently  with the increase of Pb and dust levels applied.\u0000Conclusions: The results of the experiment, suggest that E. camaldulensis could be successfully grown in minimum to moderate Pb and dust polluted urban environments.","PeriodicalId":19172,"journal":{"name":"New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2021-12-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44848147","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Performance of a whole tree mechanised timber harvesting system when clear-felling a 32-year-old Pinus taeda L. stand","authors":"Natali De Oliveira Pitz, Jean Alberto Sampietro, Erasmo Luis Tonett, Luis Henrique Ferrari, Philipe Ricardo Casemiro Soares, M. Bonazza, Daiane Alves de Vargas, Marcos Felipe Nicolleti, Renato Cesar Gonçalves Robert","doi":"10.33494/nzjfs512021x96x","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.33494/nzjfs512021x96x","url":null,"abstract":"Background: Work studies are fundamental for the development and assessment of timber harvesting systems aimed at rationalising and improving forest management activities.  \u0000Methods: This study evaluated the operational performance of a mechanised whole-tree harvesting system in 32-year-old Pinus taeda L. stands producing multiple timber products. A time and motion study at the cycle element level was conducted to evaluate the operational performance of each component of the harvesting system. Equations were developed to estimate the productivity of tree extraction activity with a wheeled skidder and log loading with a mechanical loader.\u0000Results: Tree felling with an excavator-based harvester had the highest mean productivity (135 m3 per productive machine hour), followed by tree extraction with a wheeled skidder (117 m3 per productive machine hour), while manually processing larger logs with a chainsaw had the lowest productivity (25.7 m3 per productive machine hour). Operator, extraction distance and mean log volume had a significant effect on the performance of different activities and were included in productivity models.\u0000Conclusions: Operational performance of equipment was variable and dependent on the effect of the operator, extraction distance and log volume. Thus, the use of models to estimate productivity considering such factors, coupled with reduced delays to increase utilisation of equipment, will contribute to the better management and planning of forest harvesting operations under the evaluated conditions.","PeriodicalId":19172,"journal":{"name":"New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2021-10-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48272455","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Impacts of genetic selection on Sequoia sempervirens mini-cutting rooting and initial growth in the field","authors":"Queli Cristina Lovatel, Gabriel Teixeira da Rosa, Alexandra Cristina Schatz Sá, Betel Cavalcante Lopes, Erasmo Luis Tonett, R. Dias, Mariane de Oliveira Pereira, M. Navroski","doi":"10.33494/nzjfs512021x84x","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.33494/nzjfs512021x84x","url":null,"abstract":"Background: Vegetative propagation from superior individuals allows multiple copies of plants that are genetically identical to the parent plant to be obtained. However, vegetative propagation success varies among individual genotypes, with some clones having more difficulty forming roots than others. The aim of this study was to evaluate the genetic gain in Sequoia sempervirens (D.Don) Endl. clones using parameters describing vegetative propagation success and initial growth in field.\u0000Methods: Vegetative propagation success was quantified for 16 clones in a completely randomised design consisting of 10 replications, each containing 10 mini-cuttings. At 90 days, rooting (RT), survival (SV) and the number of new shoots (NS) were evaluated. Performance after planting in the field was assessed using 13 clones from the previous experiment, arranged in linear parcels of 10 plants with 8 replicates. After 18 months, survival (SV), stem diameter (SD), height (H) and dominance breakdown (DB) were assessed. Estimates of variance components, heritability and genetic correlations were obtained using the Selegen-REML/BLUP software.\u0000Results: The mini cuttings of the 16 clones had a coefficient of genetic variation (CVgi%) of 32.32% for RT, 5.44% for SV and 5.35% for NS. The heritability of the total genetic effects (H2 g) for RT was 0.68. The clones with the best predicted genotypic classifications for the characteristics evaluated in the field were A116, A140 and A138 for SV, A126, A140 and A138 for SD, A138, A140 and A117 for H and A138, A228 and A116 for DB.\u0000Conclusions: In general, it was possible to obtain high genetic gain for rooting and medium gain for dendrometric variables in the field.","PeriodicalId":19172,"journal":{"name":"New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2021-09-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45438169","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"UAS and smartphone integration at wildfire management in Aotearoa New Zealand","authors":"Brendon Christensen, D. Herries, Robin J. L. Hartley, Richard Parker","doi":"10.33494/nzjfs512021x127x","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.33494/nzjfs512021x127x","url":null,"abstract":"Background: From 2016, wildfire emergency response used Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAS) also known as Uninhabited or Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) and Systems (UAS) or \"drones\" (hereafter UAS), smartphones and smartphone applications (apps) on-site, for the first time at scale in Aotearoa New Zealand (hereafter New Zealand). This study outlines the deployment and use of this new technology in monitoring at wildfires in New Zealand from 2016, and the conveyance of fire response information to operational personnel.\u0000 Methods: A quantitative and qualitative questionnaire, and semi-structured interviews were used to gather feedback on the use of this emerging technology from wildfire management personnel. The results were analysed to determine perception change over time, using retrospective analysis. The issues presented, and the uptake by fire management and personnel for the incorporation of such technology at wildfires in New Zealand are discussed.\u0000 Findings: The integration of UAS and visual, infrared/infrared-thermal (IR/TIR) sensors has been used at over ten wildfire management response incidents throughout New Zealand since 2016. The quantitative perception of use and benefit of information technology in wildfire management response improved from the initial viewpoints, from indifferent to strongly supportive, and supportive to strongly supportive for UAS and smartphone use, respectively. Qualitative analysis showed that both positive views on the new technology increased, and indifferent and negative views diminished substantially following exposure to its operational integration into wildfire management.\u0000Conclusions: The use of technology such as UAS has gained support and currently offers the potential to increase safety and reduce suppression and mop-up costs. A reduction in the time taken for hotspot detection and management, combined with the ability to redeploy heavy-lift aircraft away from such tasks would lead to efficiencies in cost and resource utilisation. UAS as platforms for remote-sensing devices (such as cameras and laser scanners), and smartphone apps are now considered important tools for deployment at New Zealand wildfires by operational and Incident Management personnel. The adoption of any new systems or technology requires flexibility, especially in terms of management support, in which regular information, training and instruction should be considered crucial.","PeriodicalId":19172,"journal":{"name":"New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2021-08-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46589849","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Effects of selective-logging, litter and tree species on forests in the Peruvian Amazon: seed predation, seed pathogens, germination","authors":"R. Myster","doi":"10.33494/nzjfs512021x153x","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.33494/nzjfs512021x153x","url":null,"abstract":"Background: The Amazon basin contains mainly unflooded forests, and they are among the most important ecosystems in the world. Field experiments on seed processes are very important in order to understand the structure, function and dynamics of these forests.\u0000Methods: And so tree seeds of three species (Cecropia latiloba, Guarea macrophylla, Socratea exorrhiza) were set out in Amazon unlogged terra firme forest, in Amazon selectively-logged terra firme forest, in Amazon palm forest, and in Amazon white sand forest either on top of or beneath the litter layer, and after two weeks scored for seeds taken by predators, seeds destroyed by pathogens and seeds that germinated.\u0000Results: I found both terra firme forests (unlogged and selectively-logged) lost most of their seed to predators and the least of their seed to pathogens, white sand forests lost the least of their seed to predators and the most of their seed to pathogens, and the fewest seeds germinated in both terra firme forests and in palm forest. More specifically (1) within unlogged terra firme forest addition of litter reduced seed predation but increased seed losses to pathogens and germination, and C. latiloba lost the most seeds to pathogens, (2) within selectively-logged terra firme forest seeds showed the same trends as unlogged terra firme forest but without significant effects, (3) within palm forest addition of litter reduced predation but increased losses to pathogens, and S. exorrhiza lost the least seeds to pathogens, and (4) within white sand forests addition of litter increased germination. Combining the results from all forests together, predators took most of the seeds, pathogens took most of the seeds that escaped predation, and most of the seeds that survived predation and pathogens germinated.\u0000Conclusion: While such large losses of tree seed to predators and pathogens in these unflooded forests suggest limited recruitment, the variation demonstrated in these field experiments – among forest-types, among tree species, between litter situations on the forest floor – help to insure that recruitment does occur and that these unflooded forests continue to dominate the Amazon basin.","PeriodicalId":19172,"journal":{"name":"New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2021-08-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46910294","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}