Microbiological reviews最新文献

{"title":"Recent advances in the social and developmental biology of the myxobacteria.","authors":"M Dworkin","doi":"10.1128/mr.60.1.70-102.1996","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1128/mr.60.1.70-102.1996","url":null,"abstract":"INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................................................................71 MOLECULAR PHYLOGENY.....................................................................................................................................71 SIGNALING ..................................................................................................................................................................71 A Signal ......................................................................................................................................................................71 B Signal ......................................................................................................................................................................74 C Signal......................................................................................................................................................................74 D Signal......................................................................................................................................................................75 E Signal ......................................................................................................................................................................75 Summary of Signaling..............................................................................................................................................76 OTHER EXTRACELLULAR DEVELOPMENTAL FACTORS .............................................................................76 Glucosamine, Phospholipase, Glycerol, and Autocides .......................................................................................76 INITIATION SIGNAL..................................................................................................................................................77 EXTRACELLULAR APPENDAGES ..........................................................................................................................77 Pili...............................................................................................................................................................................77 Fibrils .........................................................................................................................................................................77 FRUITING BODY FORMATION ..............................................................................................................................79 Cell Density ...............................................................................................................................................................79 Role of Motility .........................................................................................................................................................79 Aggre","PeriodicalId":18499,"journal":{"name":"Microbiological reviews","volume":"60 1","pages":"70-102"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1996-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC239419/pdf/600070.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"19821017","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Genetic networks that regulate development in Dictyostelium cells.","authors":"W. Loomis","doi":"10.1128/MMBR.60.1.135-150.1996","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.60.1.135-150.1996","url":null,"abstract":"INTRODUCTION 135 AGGREGATION 135 Aggregation Gene Network 137 POSTAGGREGATION 138 Cell-Type-Specific Genes 138 Postaggregative Gene Network 139 CELL TYPE SPECIALIZATION 140 Network That Regulates Cell Type Specialization 141 CULMINATION 142 Network That Regulates Culmination 145 NETWORKS OF NETWORKS 146 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 147 REFERENCES 147","PeriodicalId":18499,"journal":{"name":"Microbiological reviews","volume":"5 1","pages":"135-50"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1996-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"89186599","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Methanotrophic bacteria.","authors":"R. S. Hanson, Thomas E Hanson","doi":"10.1128/mmbr.60.2.439-471.1996","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1128/mmbr.60.2.439-471.1996","url":null,"abstract":"Methane-utilizing bacteria (methanotrophs) are a diverse group of gram-negative bacteria that are related to other members of the Proteobacteria. These bacteria are classified into three groups based on the pathways used for assimilation of formaldehyde, the major source of cell carbon, and other physiological and morphological features. The type I and type X methanotrophs are found within the gamma subdivision of the Proteobacteria and employ the ribulose monophosphate pathway for formaldehyde assimilation, whereas type II methanotrophs, which employ the serine pathway for formaldehyde assimilation, form a coherent cluster within the beta subdivision of the Proteobacteria. Methanotrophic bacteria are ubiquitous. The growth of type II bacteria appears to be favored in environments that contain relatively high levels of methane, low levels of dissolved oxygen, and limiting concentrations of combined nitrogen and/or copper. Type I methanotrophs appear to be dominant in environments in which methane is limiting and combined nitrogen and copper levels are relatively high. These bacteria serve as biofilters for the oxidation of methane produced in anaerobic environments, and when oxygen is present in soils, atmospheric methane is oxidized. Their activities in nature are greatly influenced by agricultural practices and other human activities. Recent evidence indicates that naturally occurring, uncultured methanotrophs represent new genera. Methanotrophs that are capable of oxidizing methane at atmospheric levels exhibit methane oxidation kinetics different from those of methanotrophs available in pure cultures. A limited number of methanotrophs have the genetic capacity to synthesize a soluble methane monooxygenase which catalyzes the rapid oxidation of environmental pollutants including trichloroethylene.","PeriodicalId":18499,"journal":{"name":"Microbiological reviews","volume":"11 1","pages":"439-71"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1996-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"78288409","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Role of nitric oxide in parasitic infections.","authors":"S L James","doi":"10.1128/mr.59.4.533-547.1995","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1128/mr.59.4.533-547.1995","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Nitric oxide is produced by a number of different cell types in response to cytokine stimulation and thus has been found to play a role in immunologically mediated protection against a growing list of protozoan and helminth parasites in vitro and in animal models. The biochemical basis of its effects on the parasite targets appears to involve primarily inactivation of enzymes crucial to energy metabolism and growth, although it has other biologic activities as well. NO is produced not only by macrophages and macrophage-like cells commonly associated with the effector arm of cell-mediated immune reactivity but also by cells commonly considered to lie outside the immunologic network, such as hepatocytes and endothelial cells, which are intimately involved in the life cycle of a number of parasites. NO production is stimulated by gamma interferon in combination with tumor necrosis factor alpha or other secondary activation signals and is regulated by a number of cytokines (especially interleukin-4, interleukin-10, and transforming growth factor beta) and other mediators, as well as through its own inherent inhibitory activity. The potential for design of prevention and/or intervention approaches against parasitic infection (e.g., vaccination or combination chemo- and immunotherapy strategies) on the basis of induction of cell-mediated immunity and NO production appears to be great, but the possible pathogenic consequences of overproduction of NO must be taken into account. Moreover, more research on the role and regulation of NO in human parasitic infection is needed before its possible clinical relevance can be determined.</p>","PeriodicalId":18499,"journal":{"name":"Microbiological reviews","volume":"59 4","pages":"533-47"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1995-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC239385/pdf/590533.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"19512342","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Streptococcus pneumoniae: virulence factors, pathogenesis, and vaccines.","authors":"E. AlonsoDeVelasco, A. Verheul, J. Verhoef, H. Snippe","doi":"10.1128/MMBR.59.4.591-603.1995","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.59.4.591-603.1995","url":null,"abstract":"Although pneumococcal conjugate vaccines are close to being licensed, a more profound knowledge of the virulence factors responsible for the morbidity and mortality caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae is necessary. This review deals with the major structures of pneumococci involved in the pathogenesis of pneumococcal disease and their interference with the defense mechanisms of the host. It is well known that protection against S. pneumoniae is the result of phagocytosis of invading pathogens. For this process, complement and anticapsular polysaccharide antibodies are required. Besides, relatively recent experimental data suggest that protection is also mediated by the removal of disintegrating pneumococci and their degradation products (cell wall, pneumolysin). These structures seem to be major contributors to illness and death caused by pneumococci. An effective conjugate vaccine should therefore preferably include the capsular polysaccharide and at least one of these inflammatory factors.","PeriodicalId":18499,"journal":{"name":"Microbiological reviews","volume":"23 1","pages":"591-603"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1995-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"89157221","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Genetic elements of plant viruses as tools for genetic engineering.","authors":"A R Mushegian,&nbsp;R J Shepherd","doi":"10.1128/mr.59.4.548-578.1995","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1128/mr.59.4.548-578.1995","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Viruses have developed successful strategies for propagation at the expense of their host cells. Efficient gene expression, genome multiplication, and invasion of the host are enabled by virus-encoded genetic elements, many of which are well characterized. Sequences derived from plant DNA and RNA viruses can be used to control expression of other genes in vivo. The main groups of plant virus genetic elements useful in genetic engineering are reviewed, including the signals for DNA-dependent and RNA-dependent RNA synthesis, sequences on the virus mRNAs that enable translational control, and sequences that control processing and intracellular sorting of virus proteins. Use of plant viruses as extrachromosomal expression vectors is also discussed, along with the issue of their stability.</p>","PeriodicalId":18499,"journal":{"name":"Microbiological reviews","volume":"59 4","pages":"548-78"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1995-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC239387/pdf/590548.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"19512344","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Production and function of cytokines in natural and acquired immunity to Candida albicans infection.","authors":"R B Ashman,&nbsp;J M Papadimitriou","doi":"10.1128/mr.59.4.646-672.1995","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1128/mr.59.4.646-672.1995","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Host resistance against infections caused by the yeast Candida albicans is mediated predominantly by polymorphonuclear leukocytes and macrophages. Antigens of Candida stimulate lymphocyte proliferation and cytokine synthesis, and in both humans and mice, these cytokines enhance the candidacidal functions of the phagocytic cells. In systemic candidiasis in mice, cytokine production has been found to be a function of the CD4+ T helper (Th) cells. The Th1 subset of these cells, characterized by the production of gamma interferon and interleukin-2, is associated with macrophage activation and enhanced resistance against reinfection, whereas the Th2 subset, which produces interleukins-4, -6, and -10, is linked to the development of chronic disease. However, other models have generated divergent data. Mucosal infection generally elicits Th1-type cytokine responses and protection from systemic challenge, and identification of cytokine mRNA present in infected tissues of mice that develop mild or severe lesions does not show pure Th1- or Th2-type responses. Furthermore, antigens of C. albicans, mannan in particular, can induce suppressor cells that modulate both specific and nonspecific cellular and humoral immune responses, and there is an emerging body of evidence that molecular mimicry may affect the efficiency of anti-Candida responses within defined genetic contexts.</p>","PeriodicalId":18499,"journal":{"name":"Microbiological reviews","volume":"59 4","pages":"646-72"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1995-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC239393/pdf/590646.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"19514604","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Natural plasmids of filamentous fungi.","authors":"A J Griffiths","doi":"10.1128/mr.59.4.673-685.1995","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1128/mr.59.4.673-685.1995","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Among eukaryotes, plasmids have been found in fungi and plants but not in animals. Most plasmids are mitochondrial. In filamentous fungi, plasmids are commonly encountered in isolates from natural populations. Individual populations may show a predominance of one type, but some plasmids have a global distribution, often crossing species boundaries. Surveys have shown that strains can contain more than one type of plasmid and that different types appear to be distributed independently. In crosses, plasmids are generally inherited maternally. Horizontal transmission is by cell contact. Circular plasmids are common only in Neurospora spp., but linear plasmids have been found in many fungi. Circular plasmids have one open reading frame (ORF) coding for a DNA polymerase or a reverse transcriptase. Linear plasmids generally have two ORFs, coding for presumptive DNA and RNA polymerases with amino acid motifs showing homology to viral polymerases. Plasmids often attain a high copy number, in excess of that of mitochondrial DNA. Linear plasmids have a protein attached to their 5' end, and this is presumed to act as a replication primer. Most plasmids are neutral passengers, but several linear plasmids integrate into mitochondrial DNA, causing death of the host culture. Inferred amino acid sequences of linear plasmid ORFs have been used to plot phylogenetic trees, which show a fair concordance with conventional trees. The circular Neurospora plasmids have replication systems that seem to be evolutionary intermediates between the RNA and the DNA worlds.</p>","PeriodicalId":18499,"journal":{"name":"Microbiological reviews","volume":"59 4","pages":"673-85"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1995-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC239394/pdf/590673.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"19514597","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Nitrogen control in bacteria.","authors":"M. Merrick, R. Edwards","doi":"10.1128/MMBR.59.4.604-622.1995","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.59.4.604-622.1995","url":null,"abstract":"Nitrogen metabolism in prokaryotes involves the coordinated expression of a large number of enzymes concerned with both utilization of extracellular nitrogen sources and intracellular biosynthesis of nitrogen-containing compounds. The control of this expression is determined by the availability of fixed nitrogen to the cell and is effected by complex regulatory networks involving regulation at both the transcriptional and posttranslational levels. While the most detailed studies to date have been carried out with enteric bacteria, there is a considerable body of evidence to show that the nitrogen regulation (ntr) systems described in the enterics extend to many other genera. Furthermore, as the range of bacteria in which the phenomenon of nitrogen control is examined is being extended, new regulatory mechanisms are also being discovered. In this review, we have attempted to summarize recent research in prokaryotic nitrogen control; to show the ubiquity of the ntr system, at least in gram-negative organisms; and to identify those areas and groups of organisms about which there is much still to learn.","PeriodicalId":18499,"journal":{"name":"Microbiological reviews","volume":"55 1","pages":"604-22"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1995-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"84956970","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Streptococcus pneumoniae: virulence factors, pathogenesis, and vaccines.","authors":"E AlonsoDeVelasco,&nbsp;A F Verheul,&nbsp;J Verhoef,&nbsp;H Snippe","doi":"10.1128/mr.59.4.591-603.1995","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1128/mr.59.4.591-603.1995","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Although pneumococcal conjugate vaccines are close to being licensed, a more profound knowledge of the virulence factors responsible for the morbidity and mortality caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae is necessary. This review deals with the major structures of pneumococci involved in the pathogenesis of pneumococcal disease and their interference with the defense mechanisms of the host. It is well known that protection against S. pneumoniae is the result of phagocytosis of invading pathogens. For this process, complement and anticapsular polysaccharide antibodies are required. Besides, relatively recent experimental data suggest that protection is also mediated by the removal of disintegrating pneumococci and their degradation products (cell wall, pneumolysin). These structures seem to be major contributors to illness and death caused by pneumococci. An effective conjugate vaccine should therefore preferably include the capsular polysaccharide and at least one of these inflammatory factors.</p>","PeriodicalId":18499,"journal":{"name":"Microbiological reviews","volume":"59 4","pages":"591-603"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1995-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC239389/pdf/590591.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"19512345","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}