Crime and Justice-A Review of Research最新文献

{"title":"Preface","authors":"M. Tonry","doi":"10.1086/697679","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1086/697679","url":null,"abstract":"The process by which a massive compact object (like white dwarfs, neutron stars, black holes etc) gravitationally captures ambient matter is called accretion. The accretion of matter on to a compact massive star is the likely source of energy in the observed binary X-ray sources. Since black holes are ‘black’, there cannot be any direct observational evidence of them. Thus they must be observed by detecting the radiations emitted by accreting matter. For typical gas dynamical conditions found in the interstellar medium and in the matter exchanged between the binary stars, it is expected that accretion flows on to compact objects will be hydrodynamical or magneto-hydrodynamical in nature. Thus, to study black hole accretion, it is necessary to know the hydrodynamic properties of the flow of the matter as it is the matter which, after all, will emit the radiation that we detect by satellites. The variation of thermodynamic quantities such as the initial energy density of the accreted matter plays important roles as the emitted radiation intensity from the flow depends on the density and the temperature at each point of the flow at each moment of time. So the spectral and temporal properties of emitted radiations are directly determined by the hydrodynamical variables. In my Ph.D. work, I mainly made effort to study the hydrodynamic properties of the flow and its stability properties through time-dependent numerical simulations. We started with time-dependent solutions of one-dimensional (spherically symmetric) and two-dimensional (axially symmetric) accretion flows around compact objects, in particular black holes, after examining the steady-state solutions. We describe the development of a two-dimensional hydrodynamic code and its application to various astrophysical problems. A FORTRAN code for two-dimensional numerical hydrodynamics has been developed to model viscous accretion discs. We employ a grid-based finite difference method called the total variation diminishing method (TVD). The effective shear viscosity present in the code is evaluated. The simulations were carried out for flows in the Schwarzschild geometry. By numerical simulation, we show that the theoretical solutions (with or without shocks) which are claimed to be stationary are indeed so. When the shocks are absent, they show steady oscillations. Our survey was carried out using the entire inflow parameter space spanned by the specific energy, angular momentum, shear viscosity and a","PeriodicalId":51456,"journal":{"name":"Crime and Justice-A Review of Research","volume":"47 1","pages":"vii - ix"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1086/697679","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43272772","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Prior Record Enhancements at Sentencing: Unsettled Justifications and Unsettling Consequences","authors":"Rhys Hester, Richard S. Frase, Julian V. Roberts, K. Mitchell","doi":"10.1086/695400","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1086/695400","url":null,"abstract":"The consequences of a person’s prior crimes remain after the debt to society is paid and the sentence is discharged. While the practice of using prior convictions to enhance the severity of sentence imposed is universal, prior record enhancements (PREs) play a particularly important role in US sentencing, and especially in guidelines jurisdictions. In grid-based guidelines, criminal history constitutes one of the two dimensions of the grid. The enhancements are hard to justify. Retributive theories generally reject the use of robust, cumulative record-based enhancements. Research into recidivism suggests that the preventive benefits of PREs have been overstated. The public support the consideration of prior convictions at sentencing, but there is convincing evidence that people are less punitive in their views than are many US guideline schemes. PREs exacerbate racial disparities in prison admissions and populations, result in significant additional prison costs, undermine offense-based proportionality, and disrupt prison resource prioritization.","PeriodicalId":51456,"journal":{"name":"Crime and Justice-A Review of Research","volume":"47 1","pages":"209 - 254"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1086/695400","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44478591","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Most-Cited Articles and Authors in Crime and Justice, 1979–2015","authors":"E. Cohn, Amaia Iratzoqui, D. Farrington, A. Piquero, Zachary A. Powell","doi":"10.1086/695397","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1086/695397","url":null,"abstract":"Crime and Justice has been published by the University of Chicago Press since 1979, originally as a hardcover annual journal and more recently both in print and electronically. In 2016–17, it was possible to investigate the scholarly influence of 374 articles published in 44 volumes between 1979 and 2015, according to Google Scholar and the Web of Science. The most-cited articles and authors are identified, adjusting the number of citations for time at risk of citation since publication date and for the number of articles published by each author. Scholarly influence was also examined by identifying characteristics of the most-cited articles and by reviewing online access to articles. Articles on explanations and theories of crime and delinquency were most likely to be cited; the most-cited article was “Family Factors as Correlates and Predictors of Juvenile Conduct Problems and Delinquency” by Rolf Loeber and Magda Stouthamer-Loeber (1986). The most-accessed scholar was David P. Farrington; his most-accessed article was “Understanding and Preventing Bullying” (1993).","PeriodicalId":51456,"journal":{"name":"Crime and Justice-A Review of Research","volume":"47 1","pages":"475 - 508"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1086/695397","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47311936","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Prospects, Problems, and Pitfalls in Comparative Analyses of Criminal Justice Data","authors":"Stefan Harrendorf","doi":"10.1086/696042","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1086/696042","url":null,"abstract":"Official crime and criminal justice data are influenced by different substantive (e.g., victims’ reporting rates), legal (e.g., offense definitions), and statistical (e.g., counting rules) factors. This complicates international comparison. The UN Crime Trends Survey, Eurostat’s crime statistics, and the European Sourcebook of Crime and Criminal Justice Statistics try to enhance comparability and document remaining differences. The UN survey and Eurostat rely on the International Classification of Crimes for Statistical Purposes, which has potential but is not yet satisfactorily applied. The European Sourcebook provides the most detailed and best-verified data among the three. Even standardized data need to be compared with extreme caution. Crime levels are not a valid measure of crime in different countries, with the possible exception of completed intentional homicide. Total crime rates depend mainly on the internationally differing quality of police work. Comparisons of crime trends are less problematic but depend on the offenses under comparison being not defined too differently. Indicators expressed as ratios of different system-based values have increased comparability. Owing to immense differences in crime rates and criminal justice variables, mean crime rates for the world or Europe cannot be calculated. Country clusters need to be built very carefully.","PeriodicalId":51456,"journal":{"name":"Crime and Justice-A Review of Research","volume":"47 1","pages":"159 - 207"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1086/696042","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45278960","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Punishing Kids in Juvenile and Criminal Courts","authors":"Barry C. Feld","doi":"10.1086/695399","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1086/695399","url":null,"abstract":"During the 1980s and 1990s, state lawmakers shifted juvenile justice policies from a nominally offender-oriented rehabilitative approach toward a more punitive and criminalized one. Pretrial detention and delinquency dispositions had disproportionate adverse effects on minority youths. Despite juvenile courts’ convergence with criminal courts, states provided fewer and less adequate procedural safeguards to delinquents than to adults. Developmental psychologists and policy analysts contend that adolescents’ compromised ability to exercise rights requires greater procedural safeguards. States’ transfer laws sent more and younger youths to criminal courts for prosecution as adults, emphasized offense seriousness over offender characteristics, and shifted discretion from judges conducting waiver hearings to prosecutors making charging decisions. Judges in criminal courts sentence youths similarly to adult offenders. The Supreme Court, relying on developmental psychology and neuroscience research, in Roper v. Simmons, Graham v. Florida, and Miller v. Alabama, emphasized adolescents’ diminished responsibility and limited the harshest sentences. However, the court provided states limited guidance on how to implement its decisions. Judicial and legislative responses inadequately acknowledge that “children are different.”","PeriodicalId":51456,"journal":{"name":"Crime and Justice-A Review of Research","volume":"47 1","pages":"417 - 474"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1086/695399","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44916667","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Minimally Sufficient Deterrence","authors":"J. Braithwaite","doi":"10.1086/696043","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1086/696043","url":null,"abstract":"Dangers exist in both maximalist approaches to deterrence and minimalist ones. A minimal sufficiency strategy aims to avert these dangers. The objectives are to convince people that the webs of relationships within which they live mean that lawbreaking will ultimately lead to desistance and remorse and to persuading offenders that predatory crime is simply wrong. Alternative support and control strategies should be attempted until desistance finally occurs. Communities can be helped to understand that this is how minimally sufficient deterrence works. By relying on layered strategies, this approach takes deterrence theory onto the terrain of complexity theory. It integrates approaches based on social support and recovery capital, dynamic concentration of deterrence, restorative justice, shame and pride management, responsive regulation, responsivity, indirect reciprocity, and incapacitation. Deterrence fails when it rejects complexity in favor of simple theories such as rational choice.","PeriodicalId":51456,"journal":{"name":"Crime and Justice-A Review of Research","volume":"47 1","pages":"69 - 118"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-02-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1086/696043","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48250245","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Punishment and Human Dignity: Sentencing Principles for Twenty-First-Century America","authors":"M. Tonry","doi":"10.1086/696948","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1086/696948","url":null,"abstract":"A new conception of justice in punishment is needed that is premised on respect for offenders’ human dignity. It needs to acknowledge retributive and utilitarian values and incorporate independently important values of fairness and equal treatment. Punishment principles, policies, and practices lined up nicely in mid-twentieth-century America. Utilitarian principles implied a primary goal of crime prevention through rehabilitation and avoidance of unnecessary suffering by offenders. Judges and parole boards were empowered to tailor decisions to fit offenders’ circumstances and interests. Corrections officials sought to address rehabilitative needs and facilitate achievement of successful, law-abiding lives. The system often did not work as it should, but its ideals, aspirations, and aims were clear. In our time, there are no commonly shared principles; sentencing laws and practices are unprecedentedly rigid and severe; judges and parole boards often lack authority to make sensible or just decisions; corrections officials are expected simultaneously to act as police officers, actuaries, and social workers; and injustice is ubiquitous.","PeriodicalId":51456,"journal":{"name":"Crime and Justice-A Review of Research","volume":"47 1","pages":"119 - 157"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-01-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1086/696948","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"41493130","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Erratum","authors":"J. Caulkins, P. Reuter","doi":"10.1086/691443","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1086/691443","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":51456,"journal":{"name":"Crime and Justice-A Review of Research","volume":"46 1","pages":"516 - 516"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2017-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1086/691443","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48122406","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Reinventing American Prosecution Systems","authors":"R. Wright","doi":"10.1086/688463","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1086/688463","url":null,"abstract":"American prosecutors operate within legal and practical limits, just like any other public officials within a democratic form of government. Those limits are more anemic for prosecutors than for other criminal justice officials; they have also become less effective over time. The prosecutorial function can be reimagined with more effective legal, institutional, and internal cultural constraints that would produce responsive prosecutorial services: that is, prosecutors who respond to legal standards, to public safety local priorities, to input from other criminal justice actors, and to the lessons of experience. This effort to make prosecutors more responsive to other institutions and public sentiment runs counter to ideals in most other Western countries where the objective is a professionalized and insulated prosecutorial service. A more responsive prosecutor, however, is necessary in the United States because of the strong tradition of broad criminal codes and the ingrained expectations that prosecutors must serve justice and not just evaluate the legal sufficiency of individual cases. The prosecutor’s sense of justice—an essential supplement to the rule of law in the American context—must take shape within institutional checks and balances, guided by democratic priorities, and not just by the prosecutor’s individual morality.","PeriodicalId":51456,"journal":{"name":"Crime and Justice-A Review of Research","volume":"46 1","pages":"395 - 439"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2017-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1086/688463","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"49644173","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Mentally Ill Individuals in Jails and Prisons","authors":"E. Mulvey, Carol A. Schubert","doi":"10.1086/688461","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1086/688461","url":null,"abstract":"Both targeted programs and wholesale changes are sorely needed in how individuals with mental illness are processed in the criminal justice system. Mental illness is not as directly related to criminal involvement or violence as is often assumed. Mentally ill individuals are nonetheless disproportionately present in jails and prisons. Efforts to reduce their numbers must take account of the heterogeneity of mental conditions and their changing nature. Understanding of the complex ways in which mental illness and involvement in crime and violence are related is a precondition for formulating realistic policies. The disproportionate presence of mentally ill individuals in jails and prisons will not be substantially ameliorated by new programs alone; these have limited reach and effect. Doing better in five respects is key: expand the reach of standard and innovative mental health services, divert mentally ill individuals early in the criminal justice process, enrich training of criminal justice personnel, use data more effectively, and promote interdisciplinary aftercare programs for people with mental illness when they are released from jails and prisons.","PeriodicalId":51456,"journal":{"name":"Crime and Justice-A Review of Research","volume":"46 1","pages":"231 - 277"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2017-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1086/688461","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43368170","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}