Ecological Economics最新文献

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Effect simulation and local adaptation of multi-agent collaborative governance in marine eco-economic systems: Evidence from China 海洋生态经济系统中多代理协作治理的效果模拟和局部适应:来自中国的证据
IF 6.6 2区 经济学
Ecological Economics Pub Date : 2024-11-16 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108451
Lehua Gao , Kun Gao , Wenwen Sun , Yue Zhang , Runping Zhang , Longxuan Zhang
{"title":"Effect simulation and local adaptation of multi-agent collaborative governance in marine eco-economic systems: Evidence from China","authors":"Lehua Gao ,&nbsp;Kun Gao ,&nbsp;Wenwen Sun ,&nbsp;Yue Zhang ,&nbsp;Runping Zhang ,&nbsp;Longxuan Zhang","doi":"10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108451","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108451","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The government's unitary management of marine eco-economic systems has several drawbacks, underscoring the urgency of exploring the effectiveness and feasibility of a multi-agent collaborative governance model. In this study, we developed a simulation model based on statistical and survey data to examine the effectiveness of multi-agent collaborative governance in marine eco-economic systems. Using the data simulation function of system dynamics (SD) Vensim PLE, we verified the input parameters, income variables, behavior probability, and governance outcomes for five types of stakeholders in marine governance, finding that: (1) In a multi-agent the governance framework, arbitrarily increasing the participation probability of one stakeholder type tends to lead to the involvement of two or more types. This leads to the establishment of a compact multi-agent collaborative governance model, significantly enhancing both participation and fairness of governance compared to the traditional government-centric model. (2) Regardless of which parameter is optimized, the multi-agent collaborative governance model can improve the performance of marine eco-economic systems. This governance model is more conducive to the coordinated, healthy, and sustainable development of marine eco-economic system. (3) By calculating the degree of alignment between stakeholders (central government, local government, sea-related producers, sea-related consumers, and coastal communities) across 11 coastal provinces and cities in China, this study identified one or more types of multi-agent collaborative governance models, proving the feasibility of this approach. (4) While collaborative governance models led by five different entities have their unique advantages and disadvantages, further strengthening relationships and cooperation among these stakeholders is essential for advancing the maturity and effectiveness of the multi-agent governance model.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":51021,"journal":{"name":"Ecological Economics","volume":"228 ","pages":"Article 108451"},"PeriodicalIF":6.6,"publicationDate":"2024-11-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142659364","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
Carbon Giants: Exploring the Top 100 Industrial CO2 Emitters in the EU 碳巨人:探索欧盟工业二氧化碳排放前 100 强
IF 6.6 2区 经济学
Ecological Economics Pub Date : 2024-11-15 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108419
Xenia Miklin, Thomas Neier, Simon Sturn, Klara Zwickl
{"title":"Carbon Giants: Exploring the Top 100 Industrial CO2 Emitters in the EU","authors":"Xenia Miklin,&nbsp;Thomas Neier,&nbsp;Simon Sturn,&nbsp;Klara Zwickl","doi":"10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108419","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108419","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>We analyze emissions and associated damages from the top 100 industrial CO<sub>2</sub> emitters in the EU using data from the European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register, the EU Transaction Log, population grids, and regional information. These top emitters account for 19% of total EU CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, 39% of industrial CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, as well as a third of industrial SO<span><math><msub><mrow></mrow><mrow><mi>x</mi></mrow></msub></math></span> and NO<span><math><msub><mrow></mrow><mrow><mi>x</mi></mrow></msub></math></span> emissions, and a significant share of industrial PM<sub>10</sub> emissions. In 2017, monetized damages of hazardous co-pollutants range from 20 to 67 billion Euros, and combined co-pollutant and climate damages amount to between 92 and 260 billion Euros. The top 100 alone would exhaust the EU’s carbon budget in a few decades. The joint climate and co-pollutant damages of a significant number of the top 100 exceed the economic value generated by the entire industry sector in their respective regions, indicating substantial underregulation. Yet the top 100 received free EU Emissions Trading System permits for 27% of their carbon emissions. Many top emitters are located in densely populated regions, with 3.1% of EU’s population living within 10 kilometers of a Carbon Giant. Our analysis reveals the critical importance of addressing major emitters in research and policymaking.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":51021,"journal":{"name":"Ecological Economics","volume":"228 ","pages":"Article 108419"},"PeriodicalIF":6.6,"publicationDate":"2024-11-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142643103","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
Public support for degrowth policies and sufficiency behaviours in the United States: A discrete choice experiment 美国公众对经济增长政策和自给自足行为的支持:离散选择实验
IF 6.6 2区 经济学
Ecological Economics Pub Date : 2024-11-13 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108446
Dallas O'Dell , Davide Contu , Ganga Shreedhar
{"title":"Public support for degrowth policies and sufficiency behaviours in the United States: A discrete choice experiment","authors":"Dallas O'Dell ,&nbsp;Davide Contu ,&nbsp;Ganga Shreedhar","doi":"10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108446","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108446","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Research on degrowth and its policy proposals has rapidly expanded, despite lacking empirical evidence on public perceptions. One conceptual proposition for affluent populations is that lifestyle changes, such as undertaking sufficiency-oriented behaviours, may engender degrowth policy support. Our research empirically investigated U.S. public support for degrowth policies, its relation to sufficiency behaviours, and whether a degrowth framing influenced policy support. In a pre-registered, online discrete choice experiment (<em>N</em> = 1012), we elicited perceptions of four commonly advocated degrowth policies - work time reductions, downscaling fossil fuel production, universal basic services, and advertising restrictions. Analyses revealed significant support for some specification of each alternative policy, especially fossil fuel caps and universal healthcare. We also found a significant positive association between sufficiency engagement and supporting fossil fuel restrictions. However, latent class analysis suggested that the link between behaviour and policy support was less consistent for socially oriented policies, and that those who supported such policies did not engage in sufficiency most frequently. Degrowth framing only significantly influenced preferences for universal healthcare. These findings suggest an appetite for advancing eco-social policies in the United States but point to a nuanced relationship between sufficiency lifestyles and degrowth policy support.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":51021,"journal":{"name":"Ecological Economics","volume":"228 ","pages":"Article 108446"},"PeriodicalIF":6.6,"publicationDate":"2024-11-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142643098","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
Social comparison nudges: What actually happens when we are told what others do? 社会比较暗示:当我们被告知他人的所作所为时,究竟会发生什么?
IF 6.6 2区 经济学
Ecological Economics Pub Date : 2024-11-13 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108436
Yann Raineau , Éric Giraud-Héraud , Sébastien Lecocq
{"title":"Social comparison nudges: What actually happens when we are told what others do?","authors":"Yann Raineau ,&nbsp;Éric Giraud-Héraud ,&nbsp;Sébastien Lecocq","doi":"10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108436","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108436","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Social comparison nudges, known to bring about behavioral change, rely on providing information to agents about other agents' decisions or expectations regarding specific actions. Although the procedure consists in transmitting true information, it classically implies a reduction of the transmitted reality: the information provided about others is an average, a proportion, a percentile. What would happen if, instead, full information were shared on what all others do (as nudged agents might legitimately expect), and what would this tell us about how nudges actually work? We assume that cognitive biases occur unintentionally when the information provided is incomplete. By mobilizing Akerlof's (1997) model of social distance, accurately describing polarization effects in social decision-making, we show how the nudge-information conveyed can then act as a decoy: effective in triggering behavioral change, but giving rise to renewed ethical considerations. We illustrate our conjectures with a randomized controlled trial in the context of pesticide use in agriculture in which winegrowers receiving full information about their co-workers' performances are compared with growers receiving the more conventional average performance. After showing that the two differ in their understanding of what others do, we show in the field that the latter nudge induces change unmet by the former.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":51021,"journal":{"name":"Ecological Economics","volume":"228 ","pages":"Article 108436"},"PeriodicalIF":6.6,"publicationDate":"2024-11-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142643099","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
Breaking the bag habit: Testing interventions to reduce plastic bag demand 打破使用塑料袋的习惯:测试减少塑料袋需求的干预措施
IF 6.6 2区 经济学
Ecological Economics Pub Date : 2024-11-12 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108454
Armenak Antinyan , Luca Corazzini
{"title":"Breaking the bag habit: Testing interventions to reduce plastic bag demand","authors":"Armenak Antinyan ,&nbsp;Luca Corazzini","doi":"10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108454","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108454","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In a natural field experiment conducted in a big grocery chain in Armenia, we test the impact of demand-side behavioral (an environmental nudge) and conventional (financial bonus scheme) policies to curb the purchase of single-use plastic bags. We find that both interventions are effective to reduce the demand for single-use plastic bags. Furthermore, the financial bonus scheme is more powerful than the environmental nudge. However, the financial bonus scheme backfires in the sense that it reduces the visits to the grocery chain resulting in less money spent by an average customer unlike the environmental nudge. We also study, whether customers use the reusable bags received for free and how to motivate them to do so. The findings suggest a strong correlation between reusable bag usage and shopping frequency. While many customers use the bag only once, the more frequent the shopping behavior the higher the usage of the reusable bags. Lastly, financial incentives matter for reusable bag usage.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":51021,"journal":{"name":"Ecological Economics","volume":"228 ","pages":"Article 108454"},"PeriodicalIF":6.6,"publicationDate":"2024-11-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142643100","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
Public policies on circular economy: A systematic review 循环经济公共政策:系统回顾
IF 6.6 2区 经济学
Ecological Economics Pub Date : 2024-11-12 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108452
Riccardo Losa
{"title":"Public policies on circular economy: A systematic review","authors":"Riccardo Losa","doi":"10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108452","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108452","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Circular economy (CE) can drive our society towards sustainable development. An adequate policy landscape is considered among the most effective ways to encourage firms to adopt circularity. However, there is little clarity as to the most effective public policies to push companies towards implementing this concept. This is particularly challenging in the European Union, where these policies are fragmented and inconsistent. This paper aims at addressing this issue by performing a systematic literature review of 54 publications. These were analyzed to identify the policy measures that scholars consider relevant in supporting firms in the adoption of CE. I also highlight the gaps in the current policy scenario that need further investigation. This methodological approach can help future researchers to bring more clarity and coherence to public policies on circularity, and the issue of the fragmentation that characterizes them can be overcome.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":51021,"journal":{"name":"Ecological Economics","volume":"228 ","pages":"Article 108452"},"PeriodicalIF":6.6,"publicationDate":"2024-11-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142643101","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
GVC participation and carbon emissions – A network analysis 参与全球价值链与碳排放--网络分析
IF 6.6 2区 经济学
Ecological Economics Pub Date : 2024-11-12 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108450
Matthew Smith , Dimitris Christopoulos
{"title":"GVC participation and carbon emissions – A network analysis","authors":"Matthew Smith ,&nbsp;Dimitris Christopoulos","doi":"10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108450","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108450","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This paper draws on network analysis to examine the impact of Global Value Chain (GVC) embeddedness on carbon emissions from 2000 to 2014. A country network of value added is constructed, and a Temporal Network Autocorrelation Model (TNAM) is applied to examine the impact of network position in the GVC and emissions of network partners on the CO<sub>2</sub> emissions of a country. The paper finds weak evidence of a positive impact of GVC participation on CO<sub>2</sub> emissions. This paper does not find support for the EKC hypothesis. Additionally, the analysis examines the impact of the economic complexity level of a country on emissions and finds no significant relationship.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":51021,"journal":{"name":"Ecological Economics","volume":"228 ","pages":"Article 108450"},"PeriodicalIF":6.6,"publicationDate":"2024-11-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142643133","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
Cosmological limits to growth, affective abundance, and Rights of Nature: Insights from Buen Vivir/sumak kawsay for the cultural politics of degrowth 增长的宇宙极限、情感丰富和自然权利:从 "美好生活"/"苏马克-卡瓦塞 "中获得的对 "脱增长 "文化政治的启示
IF 6.6 2区 经济学
Ecological Economics Pub Date : 2024-11-12 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108442
Katharina Richter
{"title":"Cosmological limits to growth, affective abundance, and Rights of Nature: Insights from Buen Vivir/sumak kawsay for the cultural politics of degrowth","authors":"Katharina Richter","doi":"10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108442","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108442","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This article creates an inter-epistemic dialogue between degrowth and <em>Buen Vivir</em>/<em>sumak kawsay</em> based on qualitative research conducted in Ecuador. It builds on degrowth scholarship that considers cultural change an integral part of sustainability transformations. The article envisions what that change could look like by developing non-anthropocentric and de-individualised visions of sustainability transformations. It thereby advances recently reignited debates around limits to growth and artificial scarcity. <em>Buen Vivir</em>/<em>sumak kawsay</em> is an Andean-Amazonian indigenous conceptualisation of Good Living. An engagement with the reciprocal practices, behaviours and rituals of its protagonists yields three insights for the cultural politics of degrowth. First, <em>cosmological limits to growth</em> are normative constraints to harming the Living World and arise from relational ontologies that embed the human into the natural world. Second, the political economy of <em>Buen Vivir</em>/<em>sumak kawsay</em> produces <em>affective abundance</em> via reciprocity with the non-human world. This offers a de-individualised understanding of abundance for degrowth, beyond enjoyment and provision of universal basic services. Third, these ideas can be implemented in practice through Rights of Nature, put forward here as a viable policy option because of its potential to impute relational worldviews into materialist understandings of nature. These pluriverse avenues can enact cultural change towards sustainability transformations.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":51021,"journal":{"name":"Ecological Economics","volume":"228 ","pages":"Article 108442"},"PeriodicalIF":6.6,"publicationDate":"2024-11-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142643113","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
Climate change and the farmer-Pastoralist's violent conflict: Experimental evidence from Nigeria 气候变化与农牧民暴力冲突:尼日利亚的实验证据
IF 6.6 2区 经济学
Ecological Economics Pub Date : 2024-11-11 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108449
Uchenna Efobi , Oluwabunmi Adejumo , Jiyoung Kim
{"title":"Climate change and the farmer-Pastoralist's violent conflict: Experimental evidence from Nigeria","authors":"Uchenna Efobi ,&nbsp;Oluwabunmi Adejumo ,&nbsp;Jiyoung Kim","doi":"10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108449","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108449","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>We examine how a better understanding of how climate change induces herder migration to other locations and subsequent conflicts with sedentary farmers influences respondents' support for policies that accommodate outgroup members. We conducted a pre-registered survey experiment with 550 residents of a conflict zone in Nigeria and discovered that as perceived herder vulnerability due to climate change increases, residents are inclined to support policies that accommodate these herders. In other words, rhetorical exposure that leads respondents to perceive climate change as the primary driver of herder migration to other communities increases support for accommodating policies (i.e., policies that support integrating outgroup members into their community). The effects are essentially consistent regardless of the respondents' proximity to the conflict, as measured by their loss experiences or their trust in outgroup members or dominant domestic institutions. These results highlight the need to conceptualise vulnerability as the primary driver of the herder-farmer conflict, which is a settled fact as opposed to other 'conspiratorial' narratives, allowing for new methods of mapping public opinion in favor of integrating both groups for peaceful coexistence in conflict zones.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":51021,"journal":{"name":"Ecological Economics","volume":"228 ","pages":"Article 108449"},"PeriodicalIF":6.6,"publicationDate":"2024-11-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142643117","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
Community reconstruction of biocultural landscapes. Application in the Kokonuko Indigenous Territory 生物文化景观的社区重建。在科科努科土著领地的应用
IF 6.6 2区 经济学
Ecological Economics Pub Date : 2024-11-09 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108447
Marta Montaño , Olga Sanabria , Oswaldo Quilindo , Alexander Urrego-Mesa , Enric Tello , Joan Marull
{"title":"Community reconstruction of biocultural landscapes. Application in the Kokonuko Indigenous Territory","authors":"Marta Montaño ,&nbsp;Olga Sanabria ,&nbsp;Oswaldo Quilindo ,&nbsp;Alexander Urrego-Mesa ,&nbsp;Enric Tello ,&nbsp;Joan Marull","doi":"10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108447","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108447","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>To reverse the socioecological impacts derived from the Green Revolution in the indigenous territory of Puracé (Colombia), an agroecological transition proposal elaborated by the Kokonuko community through participative action research is presented with a respectful approach to the indigenous knowledge of this community and their <em>Cabildo</em>. Reversing the detrimental consequences of industrial agriculture requires reducing dependence on non-renewable energy inputs and their replacement with nature-based solutions based on biocultural heritage of the community. This study compares traditional agricultural management based on ethnobotanical characterization, biophysical energy analysis, and landscape evaluation, describing the different agricultural systems that compose the basis of the proposal for this agroecological transition carried out with the Kokonuko people. The results show that traditional management from socially integrated polyculture of some pilot farms is multifunctional, high agro-diverse, food-sovereignty and traditional medicine oriented. Besides, it has a high energy efficiency compared to industrial monoculture management more related to agrochemicals and direct production to the market. The performance of traditional management in the indigenous territory, previously optimized in pilot farms, would facilitate the reconstruction of biocultural landscapes, strengthen indigenous governance, and recover traditional multifunctionality that assured food sovereignty of the community that was the depository of indigenous knowledge. The conservation of seeds by the community is essential to generate a global transformative change towards sustainability.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":51021,"journal":{"name":"Ecological Economics","volume":"228 ","pages":"Article 108447"},"PeriodicalIF":6.6,"publicationDate":"2024-11-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142659363","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"经济学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
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