Journal of Limnology最新文献

{"title":"Temporal evolution of lake level fluctuations under flood conditions and impacts on the littoral ecosystems","authors":"Marzia Ciampittiello, Helmi Saidi, Lyudmila Kamburska, Silvia Zaupa, Angela Boggero","doi":"10.4081/jlimnol.2022.2141","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4081/jlimnol.2022.2141","url":null,"abstract":"Lake levels fluctuations are conditioned by seasonal variability, water resources management and climate change. Recent studies have shown that global warming potentially affects the risk of flooding and that the decisive factor for flood events is not temperature, but precipitation characteristics and hydrological conditions. Flood events have numerous impacts on social, economic and environmental aspects depending on how humans have altered lands, natural rivers and lake dynamics. Flood protection measures can cause conflicts with conservation measures and with ecosystem services because natural capital is not considered able to control floods and to contribute control floods and that it can contribute to human health and safety. In this paper we analysed the flood events in Lake Maggiore for return time periods of 3 – 5 – 10 – 25 – 50 – 100 – 250 – 500 years, considering the flood frequency in the last ten years using 1868-2021 as a reference period. We discussed the probability distribution of flood peaks, the correlation and linear regression between the lake level fluctuations and macroinvertebrates occurrence. We also presented lake coasts flood hazard mapping. The probability distribution that better describes the annual peak level is the Gumbel function, while for spring and autumn flood events the better distribution is the Log-Pearson type III. One of the historical flood events in terms of magnitude was in 2000, characterized by a return time of about 50 years. The last flood event in 2020, was characterized by a return period of about 10 years. Considering the seasonal frequency of flood, the autumn magnitude was higher than the spring one, and the differences between seasonal flood events progressively increased. The results suggested a high probability of a flood event every three years and also a forecast of a flood of about 197 m asl (3.14 m above the average lake level) every 10 years. Raising the lake level will affect the reed bed area from 193 m asl, and it will be more effective at 194.5 m (up to a 10% reduction). During flood events, the whole reed bed area is submerged. As regard macroinvertebrates composition and abundance, the first results show significant negative relationships between all sampling stations altogether vs the abundance of Cladotanytarsus sp. (Chironominae) and nearly significant positive relationships between water levels at Magadino vs Pscectrocladius sordidellus (Orthocladiinae) abundances. These few results are perhaps due to the current limited data availability.","PeriodicalId":50164,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Limnology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-09-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135936330","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Limnology for the ornithologist: effects of Lake Maggiore water level on migratory flows","authors":"Silvia Giuntini, Clara Tattoni, Alessandra Gagliardi, Alessio Martinoli, Nicola Patocchi, Roberto Lardelli, Adriano Martinoli, Damiano G. Preatoni","doi":"10.4081/jlimnol.2022.2123","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4081/jlimnol.2022.2123","url":null,"abstract":"Wetlands are widely recognised as the most critical stop-over locations along migration flyways. Wetland ecology is mostly influenced by water levels and water regimes. This research focuses on Bolle di Magadino (Switzerland), an important stop-over site on Lake Maggiore, artificially regulated by a dam. In this work we examined how the artificial flooding of a wetland affects the use of this stop-over site by migrating passerines during spring. Bird presence in the area was evaluated using both data collected at the ringing station located in the wetlands and the bird traffic rate (BTR) supplied by the BirdScan MR1, an avian verticallooking radar (VLR) capable of automatically detecting and classifying birds in flight. In an attempt to shed light on the effect of lake level on stop-over quality, we i) simulated with GIS the extent of the flooded area and of the different habitat categories as the lake level changes; ii) calculated the relationship between lake level and the ability of stop-overing birds to acquire trophic resources; iii) verified that the flux of passerines below 500 m above ground level measured by radar could be used as a proxy for the number of stop-overing birds; iv) calculated the relationship between the number of birds leaving the stop-over and the lake level. While the number of ringed passerines has proven to be representative of the migratory flow below 500 meters of altitude at the site of interest, a high lake level seems to have a negative impact on the use by some species of the Bolle di Magadino area as a stop-over site during spring. In particular, two of the target species -the blackcap and the reed bunting- have proven to be sensitive to higher water levels. While taking into account the limitations and the relative nature of the results, could be necessary for the competent authorities to take these results into consideration in order to safeguard the Bolle di Magadino’s role as an important stop-over area during spring.","PeriodicalId":50164,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Limnology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-09-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"136362761","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Dataset: bird traffic rate at Bolle di Magadino Natural Reserve, Lake Maggiore (Switzerland)","authors":"Silvia Giuntini, Clara Tattoni, Alessandra Gagliardi, Alessio Martinoli, Nicola Patocchi, Roberto Lardelli, Adriano Martinoli, Damiano G. Preatoni","doi":"10.4081/jlimnol.2022.2137","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4081/jlimnol.2022.2137","url":null,"abstract":"In this paper we describe a 2-year (2021-2022) dataset of bird traffic rate measured with the avian vertical-looking radar BirdScan MR1, installed near the Bolle di Magadino Natural Reserve protected area (Switzerland), an important stop-over site on the northern shore of Lake Maggiore. The dataset includes over 200,000 records of hourly traffic rates measured from 0 to 3000 m above ground level, with altitude bins of 100 m. This dataset is available on Zenodo, under an “Attribution-NonCommercial” Creative Commons 4.0 International license (CC BY-NC 4.0) at doi:10.5281/zenodo.7783993 .","PeriodicalId":50164,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Limnology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-09-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"136362531","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Seasonal variation in the relative strength of bottom-up &lt;em&gt;vs&lt;/em&gt; top-down effects in pelagic cladoceran populations identified through contribution analysis of birth rate","authors":"Anna A. Kasparson, Leonard V. Polishchuk","doi":"10.4081/jlimnol.2023.2142","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4081/jlimnol.2023.2142","url":null,"abstract":"Pelagic freshwater communities are characterized by the presence of strong trophic interactions, with the dominance of either food limitation (bottom-up effect) or predation pressure (top-down effect) alternating in time. Though this temporal variation should have a major impact on zooplankton dynamics, few studies have examined it. We consider here an approach that involves identifying signatures of food availability and size-selective fish predation based on the demographic characteristics of cladoceran populations. The relative strength of top-down vs bottom-up effects was assessed on short sampling intervals as contributions of the proportion of adults and fecundity, respectively, to the resulting change in birth rate. The dominant effect on each sampling interval was determined based on the absolute value of the ratio of those contributions (R). From previous experiments, we expected that under the dominant effect of food, R should be less than unity, while under fish predation it should be 1 < R < 3.4. We analyzed two datasets – one collected for a pelagic cladoceran community of three species, and another retrieved from the published data for Daphnia catawba in 1986. In the former case, the temporal variation in the dominant effect was assumed from the pattern of cladoceran populationdynamics as well as limited data on zooplankton consumption by planktivorous fish; in the latter case, the seasonal change in predation pressure by fish on the daphnids was known from the original data. Our results show that the probability density functions for R values from the two datasets indicate an increased probability of the ratio values associated with the abovementioned ranges, suggesting that both bottom-up and top-down effects should have been driving cladoceran population dynamics during the study periods. Based on the results of the Generalized Additive Models (GAMs), the fitted R values for the most abundant species from the first dataset - Bosmina longirostris - changed from the values indicative of strong food effect at the beginning of the study period to those indicative of strong top-down effect when fish with substantial numbers of bosminids in the gut were caught. In the second dataset, for the two time intervals associated with increased predation pressure by fish, the fitted R values were predominantly located between 1 and 3.4, as expected. For both datasets, our results indicate that contribution analysis of birth rate can be used as an informative, albeit preliminary, tool to identify trophic interactions driving zooplankton seasonal population fluctuations in freshwater communities.","PeriodicalId":50164,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Limnology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-09-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135097820","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"In situ effects of arsenic, aluminium and chromium stresses on algal periphyton of the river Ganga at Varanasi, India","authors":"Arpana Yadav, L. Pandey","doi":"10.4081/jlimnol.2023.2112","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4081/jlimnol.2023.2112","url":null,"abstract":"In situ effect of metal stress on periphytic algal communities of a river was studied using chemical diffusing substrates. The metal stress caused the inhibition of periphytic biomass in a concentration-dependent manner. The study indicated differential response of various periphytic groups to different metal treatments. Diatoms exhibited tolerance against arsenic (As) and aluminium (Al) treatment but displayed sensitivity against chromium (Cr) treatment. An increased abundance of cyanobacteria was noteworthy in Cr enrichment, but Al and As were hazardous to these organisms. The relative abundance of green algae also increased in all three test metals. The metal stress lowered the species richness and diversity of periphytic algae, apparently due to the elimination of some of the sensitive species followed by an increased abundance of tolerant forms. Periphytic taxa tolerant to one metal were not necessarily tolerant to other metals or metalloids, and vice versa. The metal-induced changes in algal community composition will lead to severe ecological consequences by affecting biological diversity and in turn productivity of aquatic systems. Since algae occupy the aquatic food web base, any harmful effect on these organisms would have repercussions at higher trophic levels. Thus, it seems urgent to incorporate biomonitoring practices and chemical analysis to monitor the river Ganga's ecological health.","PeriodicalId":50164,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Limnology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.6,"publicationDate":"2023-06-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46762993","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Periphyton growth on allochthonous input in streams may lead to higher individual growth rates of the invasive New Zealand mud snail (Potamopyrgus antipodarum)","authors":"Sally Ghannam, E. P. Levri","doi":"10.4081/jlimnol.2023.2092","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4081/jlimnol.2023.2092","url":null,"abstract":"The aquatic, invasive New Zealand mud snail (Potamopyrgus antipodarum) exploits a variety of food sources. Here we examine the change in growth of snails that fed on periphyton colonizing leaf litter, wood, rock, and a control. Juveniles were grown in the lab on Spirulina algae powder (control) or periphyton grown on rock, leaf litter, or wood. Length was measured at the beginning of the experiment and after eight weeks. Snails grown on leaf litter increased in length more than twice as much as the control and the snails in the rock treatment, and the snails grown on wood showed an increase in length more than twice as much as snails in the rock treatment. This suggests that allochthonous material may contribute to a more nutritious food source for New Zealand mud snails and possibly aid in their invasion success.","PeriodicalId":50164,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Limnology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.6,"publicationDate":"2023-06-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47478002","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Gross mismatches between salmonid stocking and capture record data in a large Alpine lake basin in Northern Italy suggest a low stocking effectiveness for an endangered native trout","authors":"G. Polgar, Mattia Iaia, T. F. Khang, P. Volta","doi":"10.4081/jlimnol.2023.2128","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4081/jlimnol.2023.2128","url":null,"abstract":"Stocking of native and non-native fish species is a widespread practice commonly used to enhance inland recreational fisheries, appropriate when intense harvesting and the degradation or lack of suitable habitat decrease the abundance of the managed species below carrying capacity. In spite of its popularity, this practice is often poorly informed by scientific information. Salmonids are arguably the most popular and commercially valuable freshwater fishes being managed for recreational fisheries. Stocking of both native and non-native taxa has been practiced for almost two centuries in Europe, dramatically altering the structure and function of riverine and lacustrine ecosystems. In the Verbano-Cusio Ossola Province, northern Italy, within the Lake Maggiore catchment, we measured large numerical mismatches between stocking of cultured native (Salmo marmoratus) plus non-native trout taxa (S. trutta, S. ghigii, Oncorhynchus mykiss) and the number of fishes captured by local anglers. These observations highlight the need for future studies to estimate the stocking effectiveness of S. marmoratus, a critically endangered species of significant cultural and economic value.","PeriodicalId":50164,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Limnology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.6,"publicationDate":"2023-06-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47857632","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Dataset of benthic copepods in the littoral zones of Lake Maggiore","authors":"Agostina Tabilio Di Camillo, A. Boggero, D. Galassi, L. Kamburska, B. Fiasca, T. Di Lorenzo","doi":"10.4081/jlimnol.2022.2130","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4081/jlimnol.2022.2130","url":null,"abstract":"Copepods (Crustacea: Copepoda) are widespread in aquatic ecosystems worldwide and represent an important component of the meiobenthic metazoan assemblages of lake littorals. Yet, little is currently known about the diversity of benthic copepods in lentic habitats. We gathered information on the benthic copepod assemblages of the littoral zone of Lake Maggiore as part of the Interreg Italy-Switzerland 2014-2020 Parchi Verbano Ticino project (ID: 481668), funded by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF). Lake Maggiore is a large and deep temperate lake in north-western Italy human-managed from mid-March to mid-September. This contributes to substantial changes in water levels in relation to human activities such as hydropower, industrial and agricultural uses. We compiled a dataset listing 234 occurrences of benthic copepod species recorded from three littoral sampling sites situated in three protected areas, two of which are part of the Natura 2000 network in Italy and one is part of the Emerald Network in Switzerland. We collected the specimens during the summer-autumn period in 2019-2021. We identified the copepods at the species level and created a dataset with individual georeferenced occurrence records for each species, organized in a standardized Darwin Core Archive format. We made available, through the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), a total of 13 distinct taxonomic entities and 234 unique georeferenced occurrence records related to the benthic copepod assemblages of the littoral zone of Lake Maggiore (Tabilio Di Camillo et al., 2023). The dataset has the potential to support the authorities in charge of managing Lake Maggiore’s water levels in addressing the ecological risk relevant to the littoral zone and in developing shared implementation strategies for sustainable water management.","PeriodicalId":50164,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Limnology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.6,"publicationDate":"2023-06-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48109164","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Synchrony in whitefish stock dynamics: disentangling the effects of local drivers and climate","authors":"Fabien Bourinet, O. Anneville, H. Drouineau, C. Goulon, J. Guillard, A. Richard","doi":"10.4081/jlimnol.2023.2134","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4081/jlimnol.2023.2134","url":null,"abstract":"Synchronic variations in abundance in populations of the same species are common phenomena encountered in various environments, including lakes, and different taxa of freshwater fishes. This phenomenon can be caused by similar environmental conditions across physically separated populations. In the context of the ongoing climate change, it is essential to test this hypothesis, identify the factors driving the synchrony and elucidate the mechanisms, in the attempt to improve fisheries management. This study investigates synchronic variations in European whitefish (Coregonus spp.) populations in five peri-alpine lakes. The hypothesis suggests that shared biotic or abiotic factors contribute to similar trends in whitefish landings. Environmental and seasonal variables impacting the early life stages of the species were analyzed, and the Euclidean distances between the multivariate time series were calculated to identify similarities or dissimilarities in lake environmental parameters. We found that regional winter and spring temperatures were consistent across the lakes, but these factors did not fully account for variations in landings statistics. Wind intensity, water level and zooplankton abundance showed lake-specific patterns that could better explain local conditions and dynamics. Linear models did not reveal a coherent correlation with a common environmental variable across all lakes. However, distinct relationships were found in four of the lakes, with local factors significantly contributing to abundance variations. The spring abundance of Daphnia spp., a primary food source for whitefish larvae, was the main factor correlated with fish landing trends in Lake Geneva and Lake Bourget. Higher availability of Daphnia spp. may decrease intraspecific competition and density-dependent mortality. In Lake Neuchâtel, winter water temperature was negatively correlated with fish abundance proxies, suggesting that warmer winters may compromise reproduction success. Lake Annecy saw an increase in whitefish landings following a substantial reduction in fishing efforts during the late 2000s. A significant negative correlation was found between whitefish landings and fishing efforts. No relationship was found for Lake Aiguebelette, maybe due to a lack of zooplankton data. In conclusion, the observed synchrony in the European whitefish population is likely driven by a combination of interacting environmental and anthropogenic factors rather than a single common variable. Further research and a more detailed dataset are needed to better understand these complex relationships.\u0000 \u0000Cover image: Whitefish (courtesy of Rémi Masson)","PeriodicalId":50164,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Limnology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.6,"publicationDate":"2023-06-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48440678","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Longitudinal recovery gradient of macroinvertebrates during different hydrological scenarios in a downstream river reach","authors":"Dimitar D. Doychev","doi":"10.4081/jlimnol.2023.2125","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4081/jlimnol.2023.2125","url":null,"abstract":"Macroinvertebrate community composition in regulated rivers is highly dependent on high and low flow events. Significant reduction or augmentation of the flow downstream from a dam can lead to a decrease in the variety of the sensitive macrozoobenthic taxa. Such decreases may lead to a degraded ecological status. In this research, the macrozoobenthic community was investigated in a river section downstream of a multipurpose dam with strategic significance for northeast Bulgaria. Samples were collected for five years from the Golyama Kamchia River, in close proximity to the Ticha dam. Three sampling sites were established in a longitudinal gradient, from 75 to 1770 meters from the dam. Sixteen invertebrate samples were taken between 2017 and 2021. Double sampling (spring and autumn) was conducted in 2019. The goal was to find how macroinvertebrate communities are influenced by the dam-induced modified environmental conditions, from the management of the dam, and which of the parameters is considered to have the strongest effect. Likewise for the study was important to understand longitudinal recovery gradients from the application of the present “minimum acceptable flow – compensation flow” in hydrologically differing years. The main physicochemical parameters were measured alongside the velocity of the water at each sampling site. Additionally, the maintained hydrological regime was explored for a relationship by several hydrological indices with the macroinvertebrate community composition. The analysis of the biological data through 7 biological indices showed that hydrologically sensitive taxa (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera - EPT) were very good indicators for damming impact, detecting disturbances not so well differentiated by other type-specific indices and the resulting ecological status. The order Trichoptera was the most influenced taxa group during the study. In 2020 the base flow released from the dam dropped to its lowest level (0.095 m3 s-1 from 0.552 m3 s-1) for an explored 10-year period of hydrology. This event continued for more than a year and led to a rupture of the previously observed recovery gradient. Downstream of the second sampling site, at about 800 m below the dam wall, a decrease in the number of trichopteran families was observed and at the third site, at 1.8 km from the dam they were significantly reduced.","PeriodicalId":50164,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Limnology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.6,"publicationDate":"2023-06-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43230162","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}