{"title":"Bambara Household Organization","authors":"C. Toulmin","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198853046.003.0014","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198853046.003.0014","url":null,"abstract":"The Bambara households of Kala are very large domestic organizations, in comparison with those found elsewhere in West Africa. This chapter examines the factors which encourage persistence of large domestic groups, including the advantages reaped from production, investment and reproduction, alongside protection of the individual from risk. The drawbacks to the individual from incorporation within a household are examined, such as loss of control over labour and other resources. Membership of a household involves agreement with an unspoken contract regarding the duties and expectations of members; however, such terms are subject to some flexibility and can be renegotiated. Modelling relations within the household allows for a review of options for cooperation, vulnerability to demographic risk, the significance of economies of scale, acquisition and maintenance of productive assets, game-theory, cooperation, conflict and division.","PeriodicalId":445954,"journal":{"name":"Cattle, Women, and Wells","volume":"11 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-10-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133897502","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Oxen Plough Teams","authors":"C. Toulmin","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198853046.003.0009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198853046.003.0009","url":null,"abstract":"Oxen-drawn ploughs are used for cultivating the land and weeding millet fields, allowing a much larger area to be farmed than would be possible by hand. This chapter presents the distribution of oxen and plough-team equipment between village households, alongside patterns of sales and purchases of animals and their costs. Alternatives to buying animals and equipment are investigated, such as borrowing animals, and hire of plough teams, before examining the difficulties faced by those households without their own plough-team. The costs of acquiring and maintaining a plough team, and flow of returns over a five-year period are presented. Returns to investment in a plough team are shown for the four household types, A, B, C, D, in terms of net-present-value and payback period, depending on choices made about expansion of land area cultivated over a five year period. The chapter explores the importance of joint investment in both a well and oxen plough-team, before turning to an assessment of risk to oxen plough-team investment, and the flexibility of capital held in this form.","PeriodicalId":445954,"journal":{"name":"Cattle, Women, and Wells","volume":"106 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-10-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128016898","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Climate, Cultivation, and Household Income","authors":"C. Toulmin","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198853046.003.0003","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198853046.003.0003","url":null,"abstract":"Maps, figures, and tables present data on rainfall trends and distribution in this Sahelian setting, demonstrating the high level of variability within and between years. The pattern of soils, vegetation and water are described and how these provide the basis for the economy of village and household. Land use, crop choice, and livestock ownership are discussed alongside ownership of other productive assets, such as wells, plough-teams, and donkey-carts. Overall production of the main crop, millet, is described and its allocation to a range of purposes, with a picture of how many days of grain are available from the harvest for different households. Household income and expenditure are shown, the principal sources of income, and cash expenditure by category of purpose, such as purchase of livestock, marriage costs and payment of taxes. It is shown that size of income is partly a function of household size, but also the result of special circumstances, such as whether a marriage is in preparation, or a new ox needs to be bought.","PeriodicalId":445954,"journal":{"name":"Cattle, Women, and Wells","volume":"55 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-10-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115660739","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Introducing Investment Options","authors":"C. Toulmin","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198853046.003.0007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198853046.003.0007","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter offers a brief survey of how the investment literature deals with risk and uncertainty, and examines the reasons for variation in returns between farmers from the principal assets – wells, oxen plough-teams, breeding cattle. Simple decision-making models derive criteria for choosing between investment options according to the net present value, internal rate of return, and payback period associated with a given pattern of returns over time. Portfolio models presents the rationale for investment in a range of assets, the returns from which are poorly correlated. Farmers differ in terms of their access to factors of production, the scale of their activities, the opportunity cost of capital, and vulnerability to risk. Four idealised household types – A, B, C, D – are described in order to compare the flow of returns from the three principal investments – wells, oxen plough-teams, and breeding cattle.","PeriodicalId":445954,"journal":{"name":"Cattle, Women, and Wells","volume":"22 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-10-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"114390875","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"The Farming System","authors":"C. Toulmin","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198853046.003.0004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198853046.003.0004","url":null,"abstract":"There are two millet varieties cultivated in Kala, a long-cycle bush field, and a short-cycle village field variety, covering more than 90% of farmed land. The characteristics, scale and access to land, labour and capital are presented, showing the very high reliance on household-owned resources. The pattern of activity between the two varieties is shown for 1980 and 1981, given differences in rainfall distribution. The size of bush and village fields, and their distribution by household are described and inputs of labour and plough-team use discussed. The particular importance of manure availability is shown for more intensive cultivation of village field millet, before presenting the performance of households in terms of yields of the two varieties, per hectare and per worker, demonstrating both competition and complementarity between the two crops.","PeriodicalId":445954,"journal":{"name":"Cattle, Women, and Wells","volume":"218 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-10-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122485423","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Investment in Cattle-Breeding Stock","authors":"C. Toulmin","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198853046.003.0010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198853046.003.0010","url":null,"abstract":"The village of Kala has large cattle holdings, totalling more than 600 animals managed in 7 herds. But cattle are held very unequally, with 2/3 of households having 10 cattle or less. A strong positive relationship exists between herd and household size, with larger households also holding greater cattle wealth per person. The chapter presents data on sales and purchases of cattle, exploring the costs of investment in breeding cattle, and returns in the form of calf production, milk, dung, and final sales value. The risks to cattle, and factors affecting yields from breeding stock, are investigated, as are the reason for variation in returns from one farmer to another. Returns are modelled over a 5-year period for four household types A, B, C, D, to demonstrate the range of outcomes. There are multiple risks to capital values embodied in breeding cattle, and the flow of returns, such as from theft, disease, and tensions between herd-owner and hired herder.","PeriodicalId":445954,"journal":{"name":"Cattle, Women, and Wells","volume":"48 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-10-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"134576496","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Marriage","authors":"C. Toulmin","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198853046.003.0013","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198853046.003.0013","url":null,"abstract":"Marriage can be viewed in economic terms as an investment, an outlay of capital by the man’s family before and at the time of the wedding which yields returns over the subsequent period. Returns take a variety of forms, depending on the rights and obligations associated with marriage in a given society. Bambara society in Kala is patriarchal, and lineage-based, in which bride-wealth is paid by the man’s family to that of the woman’s family. Control over childbearing is one of several rights which pass on marriage, along with a woman’s labour power, in the millet-field and in domestic arenas. A woman’s income and resources, and the links of support between her and her natal households, are also valuable elements which come with marriage. Being married is seen as a fundamental and necessary state, very few women remain unmarried for long, polygamy and widow inheritance are practiced, and rates of remarriage are very high. The chapter compares the costs of and returns from marriage. These costs and returns have been changing over time and do patterns of marriage. Marriage also faces certain risks, from mortality, illness, sterility, and marital breakdown.","PeriodicalId":445954,"journal":{"name":"Cattle, Women, and Wells","volume":"16 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-10-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115090694","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Conclusions","authors":"C. Toulmin","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198853046.003.0015","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198853046.003.0015","url":null,"abstract":"There are three central interlinked areas of economic and social life of significance for Bambara farming households in Kala: annual millet production, returns from various investments – wells, plough-teams, breeding cattle - and longer term returns from child-rearing, marriage and household management. Success in each field reinforces success in the other two fields as, for example, when a good millet harvest can fund another marriage which will generate a replenishment of labour in the longer term. People face highly variable returns to farming and investment, and must continually react to changing climatic and economic circumstances, by altering patterns of crop production and investment. Some households do better than others, since their scale and strategy enable them to deal with uncertainty, and risks. Equally, mastery of a successful investment portfolio enables a household to re-invest surplus in marriage and expansion of the domestic group, ensuring greater resilience to future shocks, especially demographic. Nevertheless, there are certain forces operating at higher level - environmental trends, weak institutions, poor governance of land – which are difficult for Kala’s farmers to address.","PeriodicalId":445954,"journal":{"name":"Cattle, Women, and Wells","volume":"14 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-10-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123551320","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Background to the Village of Kala","authors":"C. Toulmin","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198853046.003.0002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198853046.003.0002","url":null,"abstract":"The village setting is described, patterns of settlement, the presence of different ethnic groups, and village and lineage structures. Bambara peasant society and household organisation are presented, and the role of individual and collective activity, assets and incomes. The impacts of French colonisation and Independence, on government administration, taxation, health and education are described, before discussion of recent economic and political developments in Mali.","PeriodicalId":445954,"journal":{"name":"Cattle, Women, and Wells","volume":"107 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-10-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132116212","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Well-Digging","authors":"C. Toulmin","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198853046.003.0008","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198853046.003.0008","url":null,"abstract":"Wells are of great importance in this arid zone to provide for household needs and water livestock. Well-digging by individual households in Kala has become a major activity, the number growing from 16 in 1980 to 43 in 1983. Private wells are dug mainly to exchange water with visiting livestock keepers during the dry season, in exchange for the dung from the herd, which builds up soil fertility in the village fields, and produces higher millet yields. Analysis of the profitability of well-digging explores costs and returns, for the four different household types, A, B, C, D in order to understand the wide range in returns from this investment over time. Risks to the well’s capital value, ways to control this risk, and flexibility in such an investment are described before assessing the consequences for those households unable to invest in this asset.","PeriodicalId":445954,"journal":{"name":"Cattle, Women, and Wells","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-10-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129447958","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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