{"title":"Some Psycholinguistic Constraints on the Construction and Interpretation of Definite Descriptions","authors":"A. Ortony","doi":"10.3115/980262.980274","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3115/980262.980274","url":null,"abstract":"It is a curious and important fact about natural languages that they can be and often are used nonliterally. Whereas in artificial languages it is normally impossible to distinguish between the meaning of an expression on the one hand, and the intended meaning the user wishes to convey with that expression on the other (the two are identical), in natural languages a parallel distinction between sentence meaning and speaker meaning (see, for example, Searle, 1975, in press) underlies all nonliteral uses. One of the central concepts in the analysis of nonliteral uses of language is that of indirectness. It is a notion that has begun to attract the attention of linguists, philosophers, psychologists, and computer scientists in their various efforts to come to a better understanding of natural languages and of human linguistic performance. One of my purposes in this paper is to show how central a concept indirectness is with respect to the production and comprehension of definite descriptions.","PeriodicalId":439225,"journal":{"name":"Theoretical Issues In Natural Language Processing","volume":"636 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1978-07-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133427231","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"On Reasoning by Default","authors":"R. Reiter","doi":"10.3115/980262.980297","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3115/980262.980297","url":null,"abstract":"This paper surveys a number of kinds of default reasoning in Artificial Intelligence, specifically, default assignments to variables, the closed world assumption, the frame default for causal worlds, exceptions as defaults, and negation in Artificial Intelligence programming languages. Some of these defaults provide clear representational and computaional advantanges over their corresponding first order theories. Finally, the paper discusses various difficulties associated with default theories.","PeriodicalId":439225,"journal":{"name":"Theoretical Issues In Natural Language Processing","volume":"5 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1978-07-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115251826","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Indirect Responses to Loaded Questions","authors":"S. J. Kaplan","doi":"10.3115/980262.980296","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3115/980262.980296","url":null,"abstract":"Casual users of Natural Language (NL) computer systems are typically inexpert not only with regard to the technical details of the underlying programs, but often with regard to the structure and/or content of the domain of discourse. Consequently, NL systems must be designed to respond appropriately when they can detect a misconception on the part of the user. Several conventions exist in cooperative conversation that allow a speaker to indirectly encode their intentions and beliefs about the domain into their utterances, (\"loading\" the utterances), and allow (in fact, often require) a cooperative respondent to address those intentions and beliefs beyond a literal, direct response. To be effective, NL computer systems must do the same. The problem, then, is to provide practical computational tools which will determine both when an indirect response is required, and wh-~ that response should be, without requiring that large amounts of domain dependent world knowledge be encoded in special formalisms. This paper will take the position that distinguishing language driven inferences from domain driven inferences provides a framewor-~r a s--~ution to this problem in the Data Base (DB) query domain. An implemented query system (CO-OP) is described that uses this distinction to provide cooperative responses to DB queries, using only a standard (CODASYL) DB and a lexicon as sources of world knowledge.","PeriodicalId":439225,"journal":{"name":"Theoretical Issues In Natural Language Processing","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1978-07-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128962486","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Testing The Psychological Reality of a Representational Model","authors":"D. Gentner","doi":"10.3115/980262.980264","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3115/980262.980264","url":null,"abstract":"A research program is described in which a particular representational format for meaning is tested as broadly as possible. In this format, developed by the LNR research group at The University of California at San Diego, verbs are represented as interconnected sets of subpredicates. These subpredicates may be thought of as the almost inevitable inferences that a listener makes when a verb is used in a sentence. They confer a meaning structure on the sentence in which the verb is used. To be psychologically valid, these representations should capture (at least):1. Similarity of meaning The more similar two verbs seem in meaning to people, the more their representations should overlap.2. Confusability The more confusable two verb meanings are, the more their representations should overlap.3. Memory for sentences containing the verb The sentence structures set up by the verb's meaning should in part determine the way in which sentences are remembered.4. Semantic integration The representations should allow for the integration of information from different sentences into discourse structure5. Acquisition patterns The structural partitions in the representations should correspond to the structures children acquire when they are learning the meanings of the verbs.6. Patterns of extension The representations should be extendible so as to reflect the ways in which people interpret verb meanings when the verbs are used outside their normal context.7. Reaction times The time taken to comprehend a sentence using a given verb should reflect the structural complexity of the verb meaning.","PeriodicalId":439225,"journal":{"name":"Theoretical Issues In Natural Language Processing","volume":"3 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1978-07-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"117319402","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"What Makes Something “Ad Hoc”","authors":"R. Schank","doi":"10.3115/980262.980265","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3115/980262.980265","url":null,"abstract":"We are all familiar with the phrase \"beauty is in the eye of the beholder.\" In this case we have an instance of \"the disease is in the eye of the beholder\" which of course explains whY the cure is so elusive. The beholder rarely wants to do anything about it. To discuss this more subjectively, let's take a neutral case. Before doing so, we shall have to point out what a case can be expected to look like. A case of \"ad hocness\" usually fits the form (or should I say the \"ad hoe\" form)","PeriodicalId":439225,"journal":{"name":"Theoretical Issues In Natural Language Processing","volume":"70 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1978-07-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127346833","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"With a Spoon in Hand This Must Be the Eating Frame","authors":"Eugene Charniak","doi":"10.3115/980262.980294","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3115/980262.980294","url":null,"abstract":"A language comprehension program using \"frames\", \"scripts\", etc. must be able to decide which frames are appropriate to the text. Often there will be explicit indication (\"Fred was playing tennis\" suggests the TENNIS frame) but it is not always so easy. (\"The woman waved while the man on the stage sawed her in half\" suggests MAGICIAN but how?) This paper will examine how a program might go about determining the appropriate frame in such cases. At a sufficiently vague level the model presented here will resemble that of Minsky (1975) in it's assumption that one usually has available one or more context frames. Hence one only needs worry if information comes in which does not fit them. As opposed to Minsky however the suggestions for new context frames will not come from the old ones, but rather from the conflicting information. The problem them becomes how potential frames are indexed under the information which \"suggests\" them.","PeriodicalId":439225,"journal":{"name":"Theoretical Issues In Natural Language Processing","volume":"248 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1978-07-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128630568","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Speech Acts as a Basis for Understanding Dialogue Coherence","authors":"C. Raymond Perrault, James F. Allen","doi":"10.3115/980262.980282","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3115/980262.980282","url":null,"abstract":"Webster's dictionary defines \"coherence\" as \"the quality of being logically integrated, consistent, and intelligible\". If one were asked whether a sequence of physical acts being performed by an agent was coherent, a crucial factor in the decision would be whether the acts were perceived as contributing to the achievement of an overall goal. In that case they can frequently be described briefly, by naming the goal or the procedure executed to achieve it. Once the intended goal has been conjectured, the sequence can be described as a more or less correct, more or less optimal attempt at the achievement of the goal.","PeriodicalId":439225,"journal":{"name":"Theoretical Issues In Natural Language Processing","volume":"43 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1978-07-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127350715","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"The Relation of Grammar to Cognition–a Synopsis","authors":"L. Talmy","doi":"10.3115/980262.980266","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3115/980262.980266","url":null,"abstract":"A sentence (or other portion of discourse) is taken to evoke in the listener a meaning complex, here called a \"cognitive representation\". The lexical elements of the sentence, to simplify, by and large specify the content of the cognitive representation, while the grammatical elements specify its structure. Thus, looking systematically at the actual notions specified by grammatical elements can give us a handle for ascertaining the very makeup of (linguistic-) cognitive structuring. We accordingly examine a number of grammatically specified notions, observe the categories and systems in which they pattern, and speculate on broader cognitive connections.Some provisional findings have already emerged. Grammatical specifications for structure are preponderantly relativistic or topological, and exclude the fixed or metrically Euclidean. The categories in which grammatical notions pattern include:plexity perspectival modestate of boundedness level of synthesisstate of dividedness level of exemplaritydegree of extensionality axial characteristicspattern of distribution scene-breakup\"Grammatical specification of structuring appears to be the same, in certain abstract characteristics, as the structuring of visual perception.","PeriodicalId":439225,"journal":{"name":"Theoretical Issues In Natural Language Processing","volume":"8 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1978-07-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123095788","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Reference Diaries","authors":"H. H. Clark, Catherine R. Marshall","doi":"10.3115/980262.980272","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3115/980262.980272","url":null,"abstract":"When we make a definite reference to a thing, we normally make sure that our audience \"shares\" with us certain knowledge about that thing. To refer to a woman as she, the woman, or Nancy, we usually have good evidence that our audience knows about her too. But exactly what \"shared\" knowledge is required? This question is critical if we are ever to discover how people make or interpret definite reference--how they represent knowledge in memory and consult it in uttering and interpreting expressions like she, the woman, or Nancy. The question is critical if we are ever to characterize the mental archive people have for storing the facts they need to know for definite reference. We will argue that this archive has to be another detailed diary, or reference diary, supplemented by atlases, histories, and certain other reference texts. To make this argument, and to see what goes into the archive, we will examine the prior question, What \"shared\" knowledge is required for definite reference? As it happens, this question leads directly to a puzzle we will call the mutual knowledge paradox. It is in the solution of this puzzle that we get our best clues as to what the reference diary must be like.","PeriodicalId":439225,"journal":{"name":"Theoretical Issues In Natural Language Processing","volume":"85 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1978-07-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"114168467","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"On the Interdependence of Language and Perception","authors":"D. Waltz","doi":"10.3115/980262.980286","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3115/980262.980286","url":null,"abstract":"It is argued that without a connection to the real world via perception, a language system cannot know what it is talking about. Similarly, a perceptual system must have ways of expressing its outputs via a language (spoken, written, gestural or other). The relationship between perception and language is explored, with special attention to the implications of results in language research for our models of vision systems, and viceversa. It is suggested that early language learning is an especially fertile area for this exploration. Within this area, we argue that perceptual data is conceptualized prior to language acquisition according to largely innate strategies, that this conceptualization is in terms of an internal, nonambiguous \"language,\" that language production from its beginnings to adulthood is a <u>projection</u> of the internal language which selects and highlights the most important portions of internal concepts, and that schemata produced in the sensory/motor world are evolved into schemata to describe abstract worlds. Examples are provided which stress the important of \"gestalt\" (figure-ground) relationships and projection (3-D to 2--1/2 or 2-D, conceptual to linguistic, and linguistic to conceptual); finally mechanisms for an integrated vision-language system are proposed, and some preliminary results are described.","PeriodicalId":439225,"journal":{"name":"Theoretical Issues In Natural Language Processing","volume":"11 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1978-07-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121621430","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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