Psychological science in the public interest : a journal of the American Psychological Society最新文献

{"title":"An Academic Career in Science Continues to Be a Hard Sell for Women: Putting Ceci et al. (2023) Into a Broader Perspective.","authors":"Anne Preston","doi":"10.1177/15291006231170832","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/15291006231170832","url":null,"abstract":"In this issue, Ceci et al. (2023), in their careful, thoughtful, and extensive study “Exploring Gender Bias in Six Key Domains of Academic Science,” present evidence of progress in gender equality in four important outcomes in the 21st century. Their work gives hope to those women seeking or working in a career in academic science that many of their efforts will be rewarded similarly to those of their male counterparts. It also validates the work done by administrators, foundation personnel, academics, and university officials to try to even the playing field in this sector once dominated by men. In identifying areas that need new initiatives to target stubborn and persistent inequality, the authors imply that the domains that they explore are only a subset of the areas in which women continue to struggle to maintain equal footing with men. This Commentary follows the authors’ line of thought and examines women’s academic career path in science using a broader lens. An academic career in science is a hard sell for a woman. First, there is the widespread belief that women have lower ability than men in mathematics, which inherently spreads to science. No matter how much women continue to succeed in these fields, if the president of Harvard University, an eminent economist, believed this strongly enough to make a public statement as recently as 2005,1 there must be a host of less well-educated people, including educators and high school counselors, who follow suit. And these are the people whose beliefs and behaviors impact the choices that girls and young women make. Second, the academic career is structured in ways that are likely to discourage entry or hasten the speed of exit of women from these professions. Generally, women, and increasingly men, are looking for careers that allow a balance of work and family. The price of workplace flexibility often includes lower wages, underemployment, or less interesting work in return for job interruptions, short weeks, a part-time schedule, and work flexibility during the day. At first glance, an academic career seems to tick off one of the boxes, schedule flexibility, as many academics can conduct research and write papers at home during periods of time when family responsibilities are absent. But a closer look reveals a more complex picture. Most academics teach college classes that adhere to a hard and fast schedule, albeit one that can be planned well in advance. Research in science, especially in the laboratory sciences, can be rigid, with precise experiments and tight schedules in expensively equipped college laboratories with a team of researchers. Further, the expected pattern of career advancement may be especially problematic for women. As economists point out, the structure of the early academic career resembles a tournament in which participants compete over a period of time and the outcome is an all-or-nothing prize. In most academic settings, the junior faculty member has 6 to 7 years to pr","PeriodicalId":37882,"journal":{"name":"Psychological science in the public interest : a journal of the American Psychological Society","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"10256130","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Masculine Defaults in Academic Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Fields.","authors":"Alexandra Garr-Schultz, Gregg A Muragishi, Therese Anne Mortejo, Sapna Cheryan","doi":"10.1177/15291006231170829","DOIUrl":"10.1177/15291006231170829","url":null,"abstract":"Ceci et al. (2023) provide a synthesis of research on the biases (or lack thereof) that women experience in tenure-track science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) academic fields. We expand on their analysis and suggest that in addition to differential treatment (e.g., women receiving lower teaching evaluation ratings than men), gender bias can take another form in masculine defaults. We argue that to achieve gender equity, we must identify and eliminate or balance many of the masculine defaults that pervade the culture of academic STEM fields. Below, we first define masculine defaults and distinguish them from differential treatment, discuss the need to examine masculine defaults, and consider how they are perpetuated within academic STEM fields. Next, we provide examples of masculine defaults prevalent in academic STEM fields across four levels of culture and how they may disadvantage women. Finally, we discuss recommendations for addressing masculine defaults in academic STEM fields.","PeriodicalId":37882,"journal":{"name":"Psychological science in the public interest : a journal of the American Psychological Society","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"10274226","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Call for Commentaries.","authors":"","doi":"10.1177/15291006231187882","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/15291006231187882","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":37882,"journal":{"name":"Psychological science in the public interest : a journal of the American Psychological Society","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"10230098","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Exploring Gender Bias in Six Key Domains of Academic Science: An Adversarial Collaboration.","authors":"Stephen J Ceci,&nbsp;Shulamit Kahn,&nbsp;Wendy M Williams","doi":"10.1177/15291006231163179","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/15291006231163179","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>We synthesized the vast, contradictory scholarly literature on gender bias in academic science from 2000 to 2020. In the most prestigious journals and media outlets, which influence many people's opinions about sexism, bias is frequently portrayed as an omnipresent factor limiting women's progress in the tenure-track academy. Claims and counterclaims regarding the presence or absence of sexism span a range of evaluation contexts. Our approach relied on a combination of meta-analysis and analytic dissection. We evaluated the empirical evidence for gender bias in six key contexts in the tenure-track academy: (a) tenure-track hiring, (b) grant funding, (c) teaching ratings, (d) journal acceptances, (e) salaries, and (f) recommendation letters. We also explored the gender gap in a seventh area, journal productivity, because it can moderate bias in other contexts. We focused on these specific domains, in which sexism has most often been alleged to be pervasive, because they represent important types of evaluation, and the extensive research corpus within these domains provides sufficient quantitative data for comprehensive analysis. Contrary to the omnipresent claims of sexism in these domains appearing in top journals and the media, our findings show that tenure-track women are at parity with tenure-track men in three domains (grant funding, journal acceptances, and recommendation letters) and are advantaged over men in a fourth domain (hiring). For teaching ratings and salaries, we found evidence of bias against women; although gender gaps in salary were much smaller than often claimed, they were nevertheless concerning. Even in the four domains in which we failed to find evidence of sexism disadvantaging women, we nevertheless acknowledge that broad societal structural factors may still impede women's advancement in academic science. Given the substantial resources directed toward reducing gender bias in academic science, it is imperative to develop a clear understanding of when and where such efforts are justified and of how resources can best be directed to mitigate sexism when and where it exists.</p>","PeriodicalId":37882,"journal":{"name":"Psychological science in the public interest : a journal of the American Psychological Society","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://ftp.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pub/pmc/oa_pdf/51/b2/10.1177_15291006231163179.PMC10394402.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"9930508","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Stories in Action.","authors":"James Walsh,&nbsp;Naomi Vaida,&nbsp;Alin Coman,&nbsp;Susan T Fiske","doi":"10.1177/15291006231161337","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/15291006231161337","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Stories have played a central role in human social and political life for thousands of years. Despite their ubiquity in culture and custom, however, they feature only peripherally in formal government policymaking. Government policy has tended to rely on tools with more predictable responses-incentives, transfers, and prohibitions. We argue that stories can and should feature more centrally in government policymaking. We lay out how stories can make policy more effective, specifying how they complement established policy tools. We provide a working definition of stories' key characteristics, contrasting them with other forms of communication. We trace the evolution of stories from their ancient origins to their role in mediating the impact of modern technologies on society. We then provide an account of the mechanisms underlying stories' impacts on their audiences. We conclude by describing three functions of stories-learning, persuasion, and collective action.</p>","PeriodicalId":37882,"journal":{"name":"Psychological science in the public interest : a journal of the American Psychological Society","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10173355/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"9505599","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"About the Authors.","authors":"","doi":"10.1177/15291006231175660","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/15291006231175660","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":37882,"journal":{"name":"Psychological science in the public interest : a journal of the American Psychological Society","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"9440181","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Call for Commentaries.","authors":"","doi":"10.1177/15291006231170139","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/15291006231170139","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":37882,"journal":{"name":"Psychological science in the public interest : a journal of the American Psychological Society","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"9448812","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Scaling Up Change: A Critical Review and Practical Guide to Harnessing Social Norms for Climate Action.","authors":"Sara M Constantino,&nbsp;Gregg Sparkman,&nbsp;Gordon T Kraft-Todd,&nbsp;Cristina Bicchieri,&nbsp;Damon Centola,&nbsp;Bettina Shell-Duncan,&nbsp;Sonja Vogt,&nbsp;Elke U Weber","doi":"10.1177/15291006221105279","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/15291006221105279","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Anthropogenic carbon emissions have the potential to trigger changes in climate and ecosystems that would be catastrophic for the well-being of humans and other species. Widespread shifts in production and consumption patterns are urgently needed to address climate change. Although transnational agreements and national policy are necessary for a transition to a fully decarbonized global economy, fluctuating political priorities and lobbying by vested interests have slowed these efforts. Against this backdrop, bottom-up pressure from social movements and shifting social norms may offer a complementary path to a more sustainable economy. Furthermore, norm change may be an important component of decarbonization policies by accelerating or strengthening the impacts of other demand-side measures. Individual actions and policy support are social processes-they are intimately linked to expectations about the actions and beliefs of others. Although prevailing social norms often reinforce the status quo and unsustainable development pathways, social dynamics can also create widespread and rapid shifts in cultural values and practices, including increasing pressure on politicians to enact ambitious policy. We synthesize literature on social-norm influence, measurement, and change from the perspectives of psychology, anthropology, sociology, and economics. We discuss the opportunities and challenges for the use of social-norm and social-tipping interventions to promote climate action. Social-norm interventions aimed at addressing climate change or other social dilemmas are promising but no panacea. They require in-depth contextual knowledge, ethical consideration, and situation-specific tailoring and testing to understand whether they can be effectively implemented at scale. Our review aims to provide practitioners with insights and tools to reflect on the promises and pitfalls of such interventions in diverse contexts.</p>","PeriodicalId":37882,"journal":{"name":"Psychological science in the public interest : a journal of the American Psychological Society","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"33504852","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Interventions Based on Social Norms Could Benefit From Considering Adversarial Information Environments: Comment on Constantino et al. (2022).","authors":"Stephan Lewandowsky,&nbsp;Sander van der Linden","doi":"10.1177/15291006221114132","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/15291006221114132","url":null,"abstract":"In 1859, John Tyndall presented his findings to the Royal Society about a perfectly colorless and odorless gas, known as “carbonic acid,” that he had discovered to be nearly opaque to radiant heat despite being transparent to visible light. We now refer to carbonic acid as carbon dioxide (CO2), and before the end of the 19th century, a Swedish physicist had already identified its potential to alter the Earth’s climate as a result of the combustion of fossil fuels (Arrhenius, 1896). More than 120 years later, scientists continue to warn the world about the adverse effects of CO2 emissions (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2022), but to date the policy response has been inadequate, and we are on track to exceed purportedly “safe” global temperature increases (IPCC, 2022). There are many reasons for our collective failure to respond adequately to climate change, ranging from well-organized political opposition (Lewandowsky, 2021) to the inherent sociopsychological challenges posed by a problem that requires global collective action and large-scale behavior change by millions of people around the world (e.g., Smith & Mayer, 2018). The article by Constantino and colleagues focuses on the role of social norms in facilitating the widespread shift in behavioral practices that is required to deal with climate change. Humans are social animals and hence sensitive to perceived social norms: We tend to engage in behaviors on the basis of expectations of what others around us do or think what should be done. When those norms change, people’s behaviors also change. The key point made by Constantino and colleagues is that localized interventions can incentivize change in a subset of a population, creating minorities committed to a prosocial or proenvironmental nonnormative belief or behavior. The tendency to conform, in turn, leads others to adopt this nonnormative behavior, which begins to spread through social networks. Once a critical mass has adopted the nonnormative behavior, these social dynamics trigger abrupt, widespread, and nonlinear change, eventually tipping societies toward more sustainable equilibria (p. 51). Framed within this overarching approach, Constantino and colleagues provide admirably detailed insights into how those large-scale changes can be triggered through local interventions. An illustrative case involves the spread of solar panels across Germany during the early 2000s: It was initially observed that in communities in which a small group of early adaptors were in close proximity (e.g., in the same street), local cascades were triggered that relatively quickly created communities in which people without solar panels were in the minority. These local clusters, however, failed to spread into neighboring communities until policy makers launched a “100,000 Roofs” program that provided reduced-interest loans and other incentives to create bridges into neighboring communities to trigger further local cascades. By 2016, Ger","PeriodicalId":37882,"journal":{"name":"Psychological science in the public interest : a journal of the American Psychological Society","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9574027/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"33504853","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Science of Visual Data Communication: What Works.","authors":"Steven L Franconeri,&nbsp;Lace M Padilla,&nbsp;Priti Shah,&nbsp;Jeffrey M Zacks,&nbsp;Jessica Hullman","doi":"10.1177/15291006211051956","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/15291006211051956","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Effectively designed data visualizations allow viewers to use their powerful visual systems to understand patterns in data across science, education, health, and public policy. But ineffectively designed visualizations can cause confusion, misunderstanding, or even distrust-especially among viewers with low graphical literacy. We review research-backed guidelines for creating effective and intuitive visualizations oriented toward communicating data to students, coworkers, and the general public. We describe how the visual system can quickly extract broad statistics from a display, whereas poorly designed displays can lead to misperceptions and illusions. Extracting global statistics is fast, but comparing between subsets of values is slow. Effective graphics avoid taxing working memory, guide attention, and respect familiar conventions. Data visualizations can play a critical role in teaching and communication, provided that designers tailor those visualizations to their audience.</p>","PeriodicalId":37882,"journal":{"name":"Psychological science in the public interest : a journal of the American Psychological Society","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"39588144","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}