Toxicon: X最新文献

{"title":"Knowledge structure and evolution of masked mycotoxin research in Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and network analysis approach","authors":"Chimwemwe Chilenga ,&nbsp;William Kasapila ,&nbsp;Kingsley Masamba ,&nbsp;Tinnah Manani ,&nbsp;Victor Munkhuwa ,&nbsp;Brown Ndhlovu ,&nbsp;Kennedy Machira","doi":"10.1016/j.toxcx.2025.100232","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxcx.2025.100232","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Masked mycotoxins are modified forms of mycotoxins that escape conventional detection, posing underexplored risks to food safety. Despite their potential public health risks, research on these compounds remains limited in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). This study systematically reviewed 22 publications, analyzing research trends, geographic focus, and knowledge gaps using network analysis to assess the evolution and structure of masked mycotoxin research in SSA. Studies began in 2013, grew slowly with one study per year from 2014 to 2017, and modestly increased to 2–4 studies annually between 2018 and 2024. Geographically, research efforts are concentrated in a few countries, particularly Nigeria (47.6 % of publications), with Ethiopia, South Africa, Kenya, and Namibia contributing sporadically. The findings reveal that only 13.6 % of the studies had masked, modified, emerging, or hidden mycotoxins as part of the primary focus of the study objectives, while the majority included them as ancillary findings. The most prevalent masked mycotoxins identified are derivatives of aflatoxins and fumonisins, which pose significant risks to food safety and public health. Emerging challenges include the limited detection capabilities and weak regulatory frameworks on masked mycotoxins, with many studies failing to capture the full extent of their impact. Notably, no systematic reviews were found to focus exclusively on masked mycotoxins, indicating a major research gap. The field remains fragmented and underdeveloped, with significant limitations in analytical capacity and geographic scope. Addressing these gaps requires enhanced regional collaboration, increased funding for targeted research, and the integration of masked mycotoxin monitoring into national food safety policies.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37124,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon: X","volume":"28 ","pages":"Article 100232"},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-09-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145134900","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Sentinels of the Western Ghats- envenoming by the Malabar pit viper (Craspedocephalus malabaricus)-A sub-analysis of the VENOMS registry","authors":"Vrinda Lath ,&nbsp;Usha Wagle ,&nbsp;Devika Jabagodu Lingappa ,&nbsp;Ramya R ,&nbsp;Aaditya Katyal ,&nbsp;Nirmal U. Kulkarni ,&nbsp;Jayaraj Mymbilly Balakrishnan ,&nbsp;Mohammad Khalid ,&nbsp;Freston Marc Sirur","doi":"10.1016/j.toxcx.2025.100231","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxcx.2025.100231","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Malabar Pit Viper (<em>Craspedocephalus malabaricus</em>), endemic to the Western Ghats of India, is an emerging concern in snakebite envenomation. Despite its increasing recognition as a medically significant species, the absence of a species-specific antivenom and limited epidemiological data hinder effective treatment protocols. This study examines the ecological, clinical, and therapeutic aspects of Malabar pit viper envenomation to bridge knowledge gaps and guide clinical management.</div></div><div><h3>Methodology/principal findings</h3><div>A retrospective analysis was conducted at a tertiary care centre in Coastal Karnataka, encompassing 16 cases from May 2018 to March 2024. Identification was based on the following method.</div><div>• killed or live specimen produced at the hospital.</div><div>• photographic/videographic evidence captured of the culprit snake by the patient or witness.</div><div>• photographic identification (using standard images of known venomous snakes in the region for patients to identify which snakes it is that they saw biting them).</div><div>Seven out of sixteen cases were identified based on photographic identification and other circumstantial evidence like snake description, location and habitat where the patient was bitten. These cases were included on a presumed basis due to the lower quality of evidence available. The remaining nine were reliably confirmed with evidence provided. Clinical presentations included severe local envenomation (100 %), coagulopathy (50 %), and mild renal dysfunction (25 %). Local complications such as severe local effects and compartment syndrome necessitated interventions. A notable trend of prolonged prothrombin time derangement, persisting up to 72 h, was observed in patients with coagulopathy. Additionally, three cases of anaphylaxis were reported following Indian Polyvalent Anti Snake Venom (ASV) administration, underscoring the challenges in its use. Indian Polyvalent ASV demonstrated limited but observable cross-reactivity, improving coagulopathy in some cases. The study identified seasonal and occupational risk factors, with most incidents occurring during monsoon-related agricultural activities. Epidemiological mapping highlighted habitat overlaps between human populations and the species range.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions/Significance</h3><div>Malabar Pit Viper envenomation is characterized by distinct local and systemic syndromes, requiring targeted management strategies. While Indian Polyvalent ASV may offer interim relief in severe cases, a species-specific antivenom remains essential. This study emphasizes the importance of advancing research into venom composition, therapeutic cross-reactivity, and regional incidence to develop evidence-based treatment protocols and improve patient outcomes.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37124,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon: X","volume":"27 ","pages":"Article 100231"},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145003645","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Adding insult to injury: A review of infections following envenomings","authors":"Dayle Leonard ,&nbsp;Aoife Boyd ,&nbsp;Michel M. Dugon","doi":"10.1016/j.toxcx.2025.100230","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxcx.2025.100230","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Over 100 lineages of animal have evolved venom for a wide variety of purposes. An estimated 2.5 million people are bitten by snakes and another 1.2 million are stung by scorpions with many envenomings resulting in death. However, survival is not the end point of the envenoming syndrome as chronic life altering conditions, such as amputations, disfigurement and neuropathies can occur. In this context, infections at the site of envenomation could play an important role as they can exacerbate mortality and the incidence and severity of life altering conditions.</div><div>This review assesses the connection between envenoming and infections. It summarises and highlights the literature describing cases of envenoming-mediated infection by various taxa and the circumstances of these envenomings and the outcomes of infection. It could be deduced that the risk factors for envenoming-led infections are multifactorial. Factors enhancing the risk of infection include; 1. The delivery system, with larger devices leading to more substantial wounds, 2. Venom composition, with venoms containing cytotoxins more commonly implicated in infections, and 3. The environment, with aquatic microbiomes and venom system microbiomes as sources of the pathogen species. Infections are difficult to diagnose due to symptoms synonymous with those of the envenoming and it is recommended that medical practitioners consider the possibility of infection throughout all stages of medical treatment. There is a notable gap in our understanding of envenoming-led infections and further research will help to increase patient survival.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37124,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon: X","volume":"27 ","pages":"Article 100230"},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2025-06-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144490949","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Evolutionary insights into toxins diversity in Ceriantharia (Cnidaria; Anthozoa)","authors":"Celine S.S. Lopes ,&nbsp;Rafael E. Iwama ,&nbsp;Thainá Cortez ,&nbsp;Sónia C.S. Andrade ,&nbsp;Anna M.L. Klompen ,&nbsp;Jorge A. Audino ,&nbsp;Jason Macrander ,&nbsp;Adam M. Reitzel ,&nbsp;Renato M. Nagata ,&nbsp;Emilio Lanna ,&nbsp;Lucas D. Martinez ,&nbsp;Barbara M. Chagas ,&nbsp;Sérgio N. Stampar","doi":"10.1016/j.toxcx.2025.100227","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxcx.2025.100227","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Ceriantharians synthesize and inoculate the toxins found in their stinging cells spread throughout the body. For most cnidarians the putative toxins profile can vary widely depending on the tissue function and the environmental conditions faced by these marine invertebrates. Extensive gene duplications events have impacted the diversity of the toxins system of cnidarians and could explain the rapid emergence of novel toxins. On the other hand, it seems for Ceriantharia, the putative toxins profile does not exhibit major variation, despite occupying different ecological niches. Some species of ceriantharians have a planktonic stage that is highly dispersive, while the benthic phase is characterized by semi-sessile polyp. However, the polyp builds a tube involving the entire column that can play an additional function by protecting against predators and competitors, which could decrease the need to synthesize a wide array of toxins. In the present study, we compare the putative toxins of the larva and polyp of <em>Arachnanthus errans</em> based on the functional annotations of the transcriptomes against annotated protein databases. We seek to understand the evolutionary process of two toxin-like protein families using phylogenetic reconstruction methods with target sequences of the transcriptome of nine ceriantharian species. Our exploration revealed that the larva expresses 70 more toxin-like genes than the polyp, which may relate to abiotic and biotic factors the larva experiences. Our phylogenetic analyses suggest duplication events may have occurred in both toxins-like proteins and the two copies of <em>Kunitz</em>-like proteins might have been present in the common ancestor of Ceriantharia.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37124,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon: X","volume":"27 ","pages":"Article 100227"},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2025-06-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144255235","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Pathophysiological role of endothelial biomarkers in Bothrops sp. venom-induced renal dysfunction and the therapeutic effect of antivenom","authors":"Nicole Coelho Lopes ,&nbsp;Gdayllon Cavalcante Meneses ,&nbsp;Ranieri Sales de Souza Santos ,&nbsp;Leticia Machado de Araújo ,&nbsp;Bruna Viana Barroso Martins ,&nbsp;Katarina Maria dos Reis Araújo ,&nbsp;Valéria Holanda Nogueira de Aquino ,&nbsp;Igor Moreira de Almeida ,&nbsp;Sandra Mara Brasileiro Mota ,&nbsp;Geraldo Bezerra da Silva Junior ,&nbsp;Camila Eleuterio Rodrigues ,&nbsp;Elizabeth De Francesco Daher ,&nbsp;Polianna Lemos Moura Moreira Albuquerque ,&nbsp;Alice Maria Costa Martins","doi":"10.1016/j.toxcx.2025.100226","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxcx.2025.100226","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Snakebite antivenom (SAV) is the standard treatment option to neutralize the toxic effects of snake venom, but their consequences on kidney function need to be better understood. This study aims to evaluate the effects of antivenom on kidney and endothelial biomarkers due to <em>Bothrops</em> venom in two subgroups of patients distinguished by the presence of hemorrhagic syndrome at admission. This prospective study included 34 snakebite patients admitted to a tertiary hospital in Northeast Brazil between August 2019 and November 2020, 50 % of whom experienced spontaneous bleeding. Endothelial and kidney damage biomarkers were analyzed at three time points: before antivenom infusion and after 10 h and 20 h of antivenom infusion. Bleeding patients exhibited higher urine Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin (uNGAL) and Kidney Injury Molecule-1 (KIM-1) levels, indicating incomplete renal recovery until 20h after antivenom. This group showed higher serum angiopoietin-2 (Ang-2) levels and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1). VCAM-1 levels positively correlated with kidney biomarker levels at each time point, especially after SAV. uNGAL was variant across VCAM-1, Ang-1, and Ang-2 levels before antivenom. Elevated levels of uNGAL and KIM-1, observed 10 h after SAV administration, may indicate incomplete renal protection and a potential risk for the development of chronic kidney injury, requiring future follow-up.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37124,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon: X","volume":"26 ","pages":"Article 100226"},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2025-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144195888","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Evaluation of Stemona collinsiae root extracts for topical cockroach control: adulticidal, nymphicidal, and chemical distribution analysis","authors":"Aurapa Sakulpanich ,&nbsp;Anon Phayakkaphon ,&nbsp;Korawan Ounklong ,&nbsp;Jinnaphat Sommanat ,&nbsp;Yudthana Samung ,&nbsp;Raweewan Srisawat ,&nbsp;Jiraporn Ruangsittichai","doi":"10.1016/j.toxcx.2025.100225","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxcx.2025.100225","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Stemona collinsiae</em> root extracts have been scientifically shown to exhibit antifeedant, growth inhibitory, larvicidal, pupacidal, and adulticidal activities in pests and insect vectors. In this research, contact toxicity of hexane, dichloromethane, ethanol, and water extracts was repeatedly tested on final-instar nymphs and adult <em>Periplaneta americana</em> using a topical application method and the penetration and distribution of didehydrostemofoline were detected at each of the specified times using MALDI-IMS and HPLC. Dichloromethane extract, which contained the highest didehydrostemofoline content, exhibited the highest contact toxicity against final-instar nymphs (41.0–100.0 % corrected mortality) and adult <em>Periplaneta americana</em> (23.0–46.0 % corrected mortality), while <em>P. americana</em> exposed to the water extract survived (0.0 % corrected mortality), similar to negative control group (0.0 % corrected mortality). Signs of toxicity such as excited movement, tremors, depression, motionlessness, expanded abdomen, and affected alimentary canal were observed in <em>P. americana</em> exposed to dichloromethane and hexane extracts. MALDI-IMS images showed that didehydrostemofoline was able to distribute from the sectioned first-abdominal segment to the sectioned head segment. HPLC chromatograms of the extracts of abdominal integument, lipid layer, alimentary canal, and head segment, it revealed that didehydrostemofoline initially adhered to the epicuticle, then penetrated through deeper layers of the integument and was distributed to other tissues. Therefore, <em>P. americana</em> could absorb didehydrostemofoline via topical administration, which was subsequently distributed and transported to other tissues. <em>S. collinsiae</em> dichloromethane root extract containing didehydrostemofoline could potentially be used as active ingredients in cockroach control.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37124,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon: X","volume":"26 ","pages":"Article 100225"},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2025-05-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144106052","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Synthesis of U-theraphotoxin-Pv1a_1, an Aedes aegypti larvicidal disulfide bridged peptide from the Colombian tarantula Pamphobeteus verdolaga (Araneae: Theraphosidae)","authors":"Sebastián Estrada-Gómez ,&nbsp;Cristian Salinas-Restrepo ,&nbsp;Leidy Johana Vargas-Muñoz ,&nbsp;Fanny Guzmán ,&nbsp;Cesar Segura ,&nbsp;Davinia Pla ,&nbsp;Libia Sanz ,&nbsp;Juan J Calvete","doi":"10.1016/j.toxcx.2025.100224","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxcx.2025.100224","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The attention to the increased resistance of <em>Aedes aegipty</em> to traditional insecticides has been directed to the development of bioinsecticides, such as those produced by insect predators, e.g. spiders. Here we present the solid-phase synthesis of native U-theraphotoxin-Pv1a_1 (n-Pv1a_1) from <em>Pamphobeteus verdolaga</em>, an active (by contact) insecticidal peptide against <em>A. aegipty</em>. U-theraphotoxin-Pv1a_1 sequence was gathered from venom proteomics and venom gland transcriptomics of <em>Pamphobeteus verdolaga</em>, and synthesized by solid phase using the Fmoc strategy followed by dimethyl sulfoxide promoted native disulfide bond formation. The synthetic peptide (s-Pv1a_1) was assayed for larvicidal activity in II and III instar <em>A. aegypti</em> larvae, as well as for cytotoxicity in human red blood and HaCat cells. s-Pv1a_1 showed potent activity towards <em>A</em>. <em>aegypti</em> larvae in the micro molar range, while showing no hemolytic activity and mild cytotoxicity to HaCat cells. Its potent contact activity makes n-Pv1a_1 and its synthetic version, s-Pv1a, promising biopesticides for the control of mosquito populations.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37124,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon: X","volume":"26 ","pages":"Article 100224"},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2025-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143948734","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Toxicon and Toxicon: X - Editorial transitions and future directions in 2025","authors":"Raymond S. Norton ,&nbsp;Denise V. Tambourgi","doi":"10.1016/j.toxcx.2025.100223","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxcx.2025.100223","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":37124,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon: X","volume":"26 ","pages":"Article 100223"},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2025-04-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143859994","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Predictive analysis of B-cell antigenic epitopes in phospholipase D toxins from Loxosceles spiders","authors":"Alejandro Catalán ,&nbsp;Carolina García ,&nbsp;Valentina Sambra ,&nbsp;Nicole Cadena ,&nbsp;José Rojas ,&nbsp;Tomás Arán-Sekul ,&nbsp;Juan San Francisco ,&nbsp;Valeria Vásquez-Saez ,&nbsp;Christian Muñoz ,&nbsp;Abel Vásquez ,&nbsp;Jorge E. Araya","doi":"10.1016/j.toxcx.2025.100222","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxcx.2025.100222","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The Phospholipase D (PLD) toxin family, a major component of the <em>Loxosceles</em> spider venom, is a valuable biotechnological tool for developing antivenom treatment and diagnostic assays to overcome and prevent loxoscelism. However, there is limited knowledge about the antigenic structure of the PLD family or if sequence diversity correlates with antigenic variability. This study aimed to evaluate the possible antigenic diversity of PLDs sequences among different species of spiders of the <em>Loxosceles</em> genus through a predictive analysis of potential continuous and discontinuous antigenic epitopes of two phylogenetic interspecies clusters. Thus, <em>L. laeta</em> had higher amino acid sequence variation than other species, being classified into three phylogenetic clusters at the intra-specie level. Furthermore, multiple alignments of consensus PLD sequences from each <em>Loxosceles</em> species showed two different phylogenetic clusters at interspecies level depending on the amino acid conservation. For each cluster, at least nine continuous antigenic domains were identified, and depending on the phylogenetic cluster belonging to the <em>Loxosceles</em> species, the PLD continuous and discontinuous antigenic structure varies. Also, <em>L. laeta</em> PLDs vary significantly within the <em>Loxosceles</em> species and possess their own antigenic structure compared to other species with common continuous epitopes. Finally, the catalytic loop was identified as a common discontinuous epitope in the PLDs independently of the cluster or the class it belongs to. This antigenic diversity of PLD toxins could have implications for antibody recognition and should be considered in the design strategies for the development of serum treatments and diagnostic assays to detect <em>Loxosceles</em> venom.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37124,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon: X","volume":"26 ","pages":"Article 100222"},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143725598","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Methods matter: Comparison of techniques used for sea anemone venom extraction","authors":"K.L. Kaposi ,&nbsp;D.T. Wilson ,&nbsp;A. Jones ,&nbsp;J.E. Seymour","doi":"10.1016/j.toxcx.2025.100219","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxcx.2025.100219","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The study of cnidarian (coral, sea anemone, and jellyfish) venom provides important evolutionary and ecological insights and unlocks vast opportunities for biodiscovery of novel compounds. The success of the field is dependent on not only the acquisition of sufficient quantities of venom but also the ability to compare venom between species and studies. To date, no direct comparison of the main techniques used to acquire sea anemone venom has been performed to determine the comparability or validity of these methods to yield venom derived from within cnidarian venom apparatus – cnidae. This study aims to compare the venom extracted from a sea anemone via three common methods: isolated cnidae, electrostimulation, and physical manipulation. Using a range of non-targeted proteomic and mass spectrometric techniques, we showed each method yielded distinct differences in both the composition and abundance of components detected for extraction method. Furthermore, few identified components were shared between each of the extraction methods. These results highlight that different venom collection methods yield vastly different results. While further investigation is required, to validate the source of each of the components from within each sample, we argue that sample collection from isolated cnidae is likely to be the most representative of true venom components.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37124,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon: X","volume":"26 ","pages":"Article 100219"},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143611721","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}