{"title":"What are Concepts?","authors":"Anirudh Singh","doi":"10.1063/9780735421929_002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1063/9780735421929_002","url":null,"abstract":"Concepts are mental icons that represent elements of another domain. The first domain may be in the physical world, in which case the mental icons represent entities of the physical world in mind space. Each situation of interest to humans is described by its own set of concepts. Classical mechanics is described in terms of particles, forces, and Newton's laws of motion. Chemistry uses the concepts of atoms, chemical kinetics, reactants, and products to describe chemical reactions.A concept is characterized by its properties, which may be intrinsic or extrinsic. Concepts may be further divided into fundamental and non-fundamental concepts. Fundamental concepts are those whose intrinsic properties are conserved.The concept of symmetry has an all-pervading influence on all spheres of our lives. A system has a particular symmetry if a transformation leaves a feature of the system invariant. The transformations occur in mathematical groups. The symmetry of a physical system may be linked to its conserved properties through Noether's theorem.","PeriodicalId":341749,"journal":{"name":"Concepts and the Foundations of Physics","volume":"4 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-09-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133563826","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"When is a Concept a True Concept?","authors":"Anirudh Singh","doi":"10.1063/9780735421929_003","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1063/9780735421929_003","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter examines the criteria that a concept must satisfy to be regarded as a true concept. An important requirement is that a concept should have all the properties that are expected of it. The semiconductor hole is taken as a case study to determine whether it is a true particle. It is found that it does not have an identifiable antiparticle and is thus classified as a quasiparticle. This example is used to divide concepts into quasi-concepts and true concepts. The important role of the concept of quasiparticles in physics is noted.","PeriodicalId":341749,"journal":{"name":"Concepts and the Foundations of Physics","volume":"1939 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-09-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128866024","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"The Foundations of Physics","authors":"Anirudh Singh","doi":"10.1063/9780735421929_008","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1063/9780735421929_008","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter critically examines the criteria that the discipline of physics must satisfy to be able to explain the behavior of the physical world. These criteria may be divided into the primary, secondary, and fundamental requirements of physics. The primary requirements include the need for physics to explain the physical world at all scales and time, to acknowledge that physics describes the real world and is dependent on observers for its measurement and interpretation.The indeterminacy inherent in the quantum mechanical framework is examined in this chapter, and it is concluded that this does not in any way affect the law of causality that forms a basic tenet of classical physics.All requirements of physics are subject to the fundamental requirement of physics, which states that the laws of physics are determined exclusively by the total content of the universe.","PeriodicalId":341749,"journal":{"name":"Concepts and the Foundations of Physics","volume":"11 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-09-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116800748","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"The Energy–Mass Duality and the FEMT Model","authors":"Anirudh Singh","doi":"10.1063/9780735421929_007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1063/9780735421929_007","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter aims to show how a critical analysis using the older concepts of physics may be able to lend useful insights into some of the currently unanswered questions of the nature of the universe. It uses the Einstein energy–mass relation as the fundamental relation for postulating the conversion of energy to mass. The Fundamental Energy–Mass Transformation (FEMT) model uses pair production in the presence of electromagnetic fields to postulate its first form. This is generalized to a force of a general nature in its second form.The model is next employed to investigate the possible nature of dark energy. This is achieved by considering the force field in the model to be the gravitational field, and investigating the outcome when a gravitational wave passes through the strong gravitational field of a black hole. The pair of particles that are produced are called mass/anti-mass particles to differentiate them from the pair formed in the electromagnetic case. Investigation of the nature of anti-mass shows that such particles will aggregate into larger massive bodies and repel normal mass.","PeriodicalId":341749,"journal":{"name":"Concepts and the Foundations of Physics","volume":"39 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-09-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133825306","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"The Spectrum of Reality","authors":"Anirudh Singh","doi":"10.1063/9780735421929_011","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1063/9780735421929_011","url":null,"abstract":"While the subjective normally exists in the mind, it is possible to transform it into the objective through the process of experimental measurement. The existence of the semiconductor hole as a real particle that determines the measurable properties of semiconductors demonstrates that a missing electron can acquire all the properties of a real particle. This analogy can be used to explain how the initially imaginary massless and elusive particle proposed by Pauli in 1930 to explain nuclear beta decay was eventually made real through experimental verification by Cowan and Reines in 1956. The act of measurement is thus able to create reality. This process is dubbed “the spectrum of reality.”While not all physical entities are directly accessible to experimental measurement, all experiments of physics always happen in the “here and now.”The design and implementation of physical experiments are often concatenations of hypotheses and measurement.Humans act as animate observers at the interface of the physical realms, and are able to create theories, and design and conduct experiments, as well as interpret their outcomes.","PeriodicalId":341749,"journal":{"name":"Concepts and the Foundations of Physics","volume":"27 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-09-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125097702","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"The Twin Paradox and the Nature of Physical Reality","authors":"Anirudh Singh","doi":"10.1063/9780735421929_010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1063/9780735421929_010","url":null,"abstract":"The role of the observer is essential in determining the reality as well as making measurements of the state of a physical situation. This observation becomes important in elaborating a long-standing paradox of physics known as the Twin Paradox of the Special Theory of Relativity (STR). Einstein showed that the time interval between two events determined by a moving observer is greater than that determined by a stationary observer. The effect is known as time dilation. However, it leads to the paradox that a twin brother returning from a space trip is younger than his twin sister who had stayed home. The resolution of the paradox is assisted by introducing a new requirement of physics called the “reality test.” This states that whatever an observer measures must be real. It also reveals that discrepancies in time measurements can be attributed to the change of state the traveling twin undergoes as he changes velocity over the journey.","PeriodicalId":341749,"journal":{"name":"Concepts and the Foundations of Physics","volume":"8 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-09-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126054660","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Symmetry and the Evolution of Physics","authors":"Anirudh Singh","doi":"10.1063/9780735421929_009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1063/9780735421929_009","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter provides an insight into the role of symmetry in the elucidation of the current theories of particle physics. Most of conventional matter of the universe is made up of quarks, leptons, and the gauge and Higgs bosons. Of the four known forces of nature, comprising the strong and weak nuclear forces, the electromagnetic force, and the gravitational force, the first three can be described by quantum field theories (QFTs), each of which has a gauge symmetry represented by a symmetry group. These are U(1) for the electromagnetic, SU(1) for the weak, and SU(2) for the strong force. The Standard Model of particle physics has the SU(2) × SU(1) × U(1) symmetry group. Symmetries may be divided into space–time and internal symmetries, leading to the conservation of extrinsic and intrinsic properties (respectively) of the particles, according to Noether's Theorem. New particles/gauge bosons are discovered theoretically by the gauging principle, where the broken symmetry of the Hamiltonian or Lagrangian is fixed by the introduction of a new component of the force. Theory is related to the experimental scattering cross-section data by guessing at the symmetry being followed, and using relativistic quantum mechanics to calculate the corresponding scattering cross-sections.","PeriodicalId":341749,"journal":{"name":"Concepts and the Foundations of Physics","volume":"25 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-09-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121398898","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Concepts and the Physical Realms","authors":"A. Singh","doi":"10.1063/9780735421929_004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1063/9780735421929_004","url":null,"abstract":"Humans live in many different worlds, each of which has its own representation in mind space. The world of the scientist will be called the physical realms. The laws of physics are an integral part of the real world, and humans acquire a natural understanding of these laws without regard to any mathematical formulation.While the experimental physicist studies the behavior of the real world, the theoretical physicist develops and studies its representation in the mathematical world (i.e., mind space). It is not necessary to know the mathematical equations to be able to carry out a physical investigation. This can be performed through observation and recording of the data numerically, and using the processes of interpolation and extrapolation.Practicing physicists usually find that they must adopt the roles of both the theoretical as well as the experimental physicist to achieve the aims of an experiment.Observers play a vital role in physics. They become important when their state of motion changes, or when their presence affects the results of the experiment. The observer can be either animate or inanimate. Unlike inanimate observers, animate observers have access to mind space, which allows them to make decisions from collected information.","PeriodicalId":341749,"journal":{"name":"Concepts and the Foundations of Physics","volume":"113 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-09-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127732458","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Concept Analysis and Maxwell's Demon","authors":"A. Singh","doi":"10.1063/9780735421929_005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1063/9780735421929_005","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter employs concept analysis for the elaboration of some confusion and misconceptions regarding the relation between information, work, and energy. It begins by noting that while the subjective exists in the mind, it is sometimes confused with the objective that exists in the real world. This occurs in the case of strongly correlated concepts. This phenomenon is defined as coupled concepts.It ends with a critique of the use of Maxwell's Demon in the book by Paul Davies to explain the magic of life.The behavior of inanimate matter is driven by the laws of physics, while that of animate matter involves decision-making, and is information-driven. This includes life at the cellular level, where information is embedded in molecular codes in the DNA molecule.Information is similar to concepts that exist in mind space. Energy and work exist in real space. Thus, information cannot be the same as either. This confusion exemplifies the phenomenon of coupled concepts.Maxwell's Demon cannot exist, as it has to be of molecular dimensions to be able to manipulate molecules, but a macroscopic organism to be able to think. In Davies’ book, the molecules and molecular machines were constrained in their movements as they were coded or ratcheted. The observed phenomena could be explained in terms of these reductions in their degrees of freedom.","PeriodicalId":341749,"journal":{"name":"Concepts and the Foundations of Physics","volume":"35 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-09-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130044183","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Conceptual Issues and Observations Emerging Issues","authors":"Anirudh Singh","doi":"10.1063/9780735421929_012","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1063/9780735421929_012","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":341749,"journal":{"name":"Concepts and the Foundations of Physics","volume":"3 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115049845","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
京公网安备 11010802042870号
求助内容：
应助结果提醒方式：