{"title":"Life, Marriage, Death, and the Household","authors":"Peter L. Larson","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192849878.003.0004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192849878.003.0004","url":null,"abstract":"Presents estimates of village and parish populations from the early fourteenth to the later seventeenth centuries. Durham likely was underpopulated before the Black Death and its population remained low into the fifteenth century. In the bishopric of Durham, marriage to a widow was common, but otherwise household size resembled other villages in England. Local landholding practices, including the right of widows to hold land even if they remarried, encouraged mobility. In the late fifteenth to mid-sixteenth century, population began to rise quickly, and as landholding became more concentrated, the number of landless people quickly increased. By the seventeenth century, family and household size had increased and the region exhibited the characteristics of the north-western European Marriage Pattern.","PeriodicalId":294337,"journal":{"name":"Rethinking the Great Transition","volume":"38 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126107942","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"The Foundation of the Agrarian Economy","authors":"Peter L. Larson","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192849878.003.0005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192849878.003.0005","url":null,"abstract":"The elements necessary for early modern agriculture existed earlier in Durham than in southern England. Tenure by copyhold existed soon after the Black Death if not earlier; serfdom was weak and quickly all but disappeared from the bishopric of Durham estate. Leasehold for customary tenures emerged soon after, providing two forms of secure tenure. Customary tenures on the bishopric estate remained intact and the land market was light. Ambitious tenants soon created holdings of 45–60 acres. For many tenants this was a preferred size of holding: small enough to be a family farm, large enough to provide more options for cultivation. There was insufficient demand and incentive to amass larger holdings before the sixteenth century, however. Overall, the tenurial and seigneurial practices allowed yeomen to emerge earlier than elsewhere.","PeriodicalId":294337,"journal":{"name":"Rethinking the Great Transition","volume":"136 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121281375","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Individuals and Communities","authors":"Peter L. Larson","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192849878.003.0009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192849878.003.0009","url":null,"abstract":"Village and parish communities persisted despite agricultural, religious, and political upheaval. Families stayed in the general area but moved to different villages and back again; this included villages in other neighbouring parishes. The reason these strong communities persisted despite changes that radically reshaped communities elsewhere lay in the leadership. In each village there was an oligarchy of wealthy peasant and then yeomen families who had been in the parish for generations; they served as manorial court jurors and churchwardens; these were also the men most likely to focus on commercial agriculture and more ‘individualistic’ practices. There was scope for individual actions, but there were also boundaries. This can be seen in reactions to the rebellion in 1569 and the English Civil War; conformity was key.","PeriodicalId":294337,"journal":{"name":"Rethinking the Great Transition","volume":"8 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122999872","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Standards of Living in an Age of Transition","authors":"Peter L. Larson","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192849878.003.0007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192849878.003.0007","url":null,"abstract":"Modelling a peasant budget shows that a tenant with 30–36 acres would be secure in times of low prices while still living comfortably, allowing for adding to the holding or investing in capital equipment. Those with 15–20 acres could do well in some years but needed to restrict consumption in bad years. Diet largely remained the same into the sixteenth century, with more beef, wheaten bread, and ale; in the sixteenth century, an increasing number of spices and luxury foods became cheaper and more readily available. Likewise durable consumer goods including table linen, pewter, brass, featherbeds, and more became common items in parish homes. Altogether this was an evolution more than a consumer revolution. However, the disparity of wealth grew greater, showing two Durhams: one wealthy and prospering, one poor. Comparison of wealth recorded in probate inventories puts Durham ahead of other counties including Kent until the mid-seventeenth century.","PeriodicalId":294337,"journal":{"name":"Rethinking the Great Transition","volume":"33 4 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130539966","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Villages and Parishes","authors":"Peter L. Larson","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192849878.003.0003","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192849878.003.0003","url":null,"abstract":"Presents the case study used for this book. This study of social and economic development examines three neighbouring villages in the bishopric of Durham: Bishop Middleham, Cornforth, and Sedgefield, and with several smaller settlements and farms were two ecclesiastical parishes. In the part of County Durham most resembling southern England, with nucleated settlements and manorialized open fields, and close to several towns, they provide a counterpoint to the development of mining villages such as Whickham in the northern part of the county. Their growth offers a contrast to depictions of northern England as poor and different from southern England. Each village evolved slightly differently, demonstrating the complexity of rural development and its dependence not only on local contexts and institutions but also on individuals.","PeriodicalId":294337,"journal":{"name":"Rethinking the Great Transition","volume":"142 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133433651","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Agrarian Development","authors":"Peter L. Larson","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192849878.003.0006","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192849878.003.0006","url":null,"abstract":"There were four main periods of agrarian transformation. The first came in the decades following the Black Death, as stable holdings of 45–60 acres emerged. In the first decades of the fifteenth century, the practice of leaseholding of customary lands stabilized. At the end of the fifteenth century, each of the three villages settled into its own balance of copyhold and leasehold; farms larger than 60 acres began to emerge. At the end of the sixteenth and into the early seventeenth century, a new yeoman elite emerged that was able to set up its younger sons as yeoman farmers. The townfields began to be enclosed, the end of a longer process of piecemeal enclosure. Through all this, cottagers and husbandmen continued to be found with 12-, 15-, and 30-acre farms. Enclosure and the creation of large farms occurred without the dispossession of smaller tenants.","PeriodicalId":294337,"journal":{"name":"Rethinking the Great Transition","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123196769","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Conclusion","authors":"Peter L. Larson","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192849878.003.0010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192849878.003.0010","url":null,"abstract":"The three villages experienced gradual but significant change over three centuries, growing in population and experiencing political, religious, and consumer evolutions. The early end of serfdom and adoption of copyhold tenure let men create larger holdings generations before southern England. Those men prospered; those with smaller holdings persisted but they and women did not share the same options. The steady low rents made it easy for those with land to profit either from agriculture or from letting out their holdings; surprisingly, the bishopric administration made few adjustments to rents unlike many other lords in Durham and throughout England, even though there were numerous opportunities. The region’s economy and agriculture supported growth in Newcastle, just as London’s surrounding counties did for the capital, although not to the same scale; and that helped bolster the national economy. In the end, however, these great economic changes were determined by the actions and choices of ordinary men and women in rural England.","PeriodicalId":294337,"journal":{"name":"Rethinking the Great Transition","volume":"13 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125851467","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"The Expanding and Evolving Economy","authors":"Peter L. Larson","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192849878.003.0008","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192849878.003.0008","url":null,"abstract":"Durham’s agriculture evolved to meet increasing needs; some farmers in the two parishes focused on grain, others on livestock. Durham had ample pasture from unenclosed waste but the three villages also had several closes and fields in severalty. Larger scale enclosure began in the 1580s, individually and collectively. Evidence of changing practices is seen in the bishop’s courts, both increasingly large herds and departures from communal agriculture. Individualism was tolerated as long as the animals and crops of others were not damaged. The parishes remained rural and agricultural; despite earlier references to it as a town, Sedgefield did not urbanize and there were few full-time artisans in the parishes. Spinning wool was common, and some farmers made malt in commercial quantities. Servants were common in the villages and while information is scarce, they appeared to be paid the same as servants elsewhere in England. Economic growth was made possible by local and regional credit networks, and in the seventeenth century yeomen were taking out loans of several hundred pounds and repaying them swiftly.","PeriodicalId":294337,"journal":{"name":"Rethinking the Great Transition","volume":"20 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130653129","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Development and Capitalism","authors":"Peter L. Larson","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192849878.003.0002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192849878.003.0002","url":null,"abstract":"Reviews the literature and major questions on the end of serfdom and rural economic development in pre-modern England. The period from the Black Death to the later seventeenth century was one of major transitions in Europe. The Netherlands, then England and Britain, overtook Spanish and Italian states for economic dominance in Europe, leading to the Great Divergence as Europe overtook Asia. In England, these centuries saw the end of serfdom and open field, and communal agriculture, with a new emphasis on individual and agrarian capitalism. The northeast was prospering, with capitalist farmers supplying the region and the expanding coal trade in Newcastle, although not at the scale of London with its exports of the new draperies and its growing population leading to agrarian development in southern England. This demonstrates an alternative to the traditional models of agrarian and economic development and indicates the importance of regional growth in supporting the national economy.","PeriodicalId":294337,"journal":{"name":"Rethinking the Great Transition","volume":"7 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125009984","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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