{"title":"Accidents","authors":"P. Matthews","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198830115.003.0006","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198830115.003.0006","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter addresses the ‘accidents’ of words. As defined in the New Shorter Oxford Dictionary, ‘accidence’ is ‘that part of grammar which deals with variable forms of words (inflections etc.)’. As envisaged in antiquity, the accidentia included any property described as varying, ‘accidentally’ in a sense that went back to Aristotle, between instances of what was in essence the same part of an utterance. A word whose essential character was that of a noun could be compound or it could be simple: this was one criterion, therefore, by which nouns as forms were divided into subclasses. A further ‘accident’ of verbs, as listed in the manuals of both Donatus and Dionysius, was that of conjugation: in Greek suzugia, in Latin coniugatio. This was defined in Greek as a ‘consecutive modification of verbs’, within what is in modern terms a paradigm.","PeriodicalId":288335,"journal":{"name":"What Graeco-Roman Grammar Was About","volume":"23 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-02-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115635025","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Utterances","authors":"P. Matthews","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198830115.003.0009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198830115.003.0009","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter examines utterances. The unit that Greek grammarians called a logos, and Latin grammarians an oratio, was the largest in a hierarchy. Oratio is here translated by English ‘utterance’. Utterances were literally sounds uttered and as such, they had a physical reality. For Dionysus Thrax, a logos was something put together in prose or conversation that ‘makes clear a self-complete thought’. Thus, an utterance is a sequence of words that meets a criteria of correctness and completeness. ‘Potential utterances’ are sequences which can be uttered. Any other sequence of words is a ‘non-utterance’: either its meaning is not complete or it is contrary to ‘a rule of grammar’. A rule is therefore a constraint on what can form an utterance, and the aim of grammar, or the part of grammar that is now called syntax, is to formulate constraints which comprehensively allow whatever is potentially an utterance and exclude non-utterances.","PeriodicalId":288335,"journal":{"name":"What Graeco-Roman Grammar Was About","volume":"118 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-02-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"117327055","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Speaking correctly","authors":"P. Matthews","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198830115.003.0008","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198830115.003.0008","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter discusses correct speech. The criteria for correctness were as Quintilian had described them: in particular those of, in Latin, ratio or regularity and of usage. They could conflict; and that of regularity attracted the ridicule of Sextus Empiricus. One concept of ‘correct Greek’ lay, as he put it, in respect for usage, which could be determined by observation of ordinary conversation. Another, however, was dissociated from ‘the usage common to us’ and appeared to proceed ‘according to grammatical analogy’. The chapter then looks at the types of error in utterances. A ‘barbarism’ was a single part of an utterance that was ‘in error in ordinary discourse’. A different ‘vice’, however, arises from ‘the weaving together of parts of an utterance contrary to a rule of grammar’. This was called a soloecismus: in English, that is, a ‘solecism’.","PeriodicalId":288335,"journal":{"name":"What Graeco-Roman Grammar Was About","volume":"109 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-02-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128123237","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Grammar","authors":"P. Matthews","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198830115.003.0002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198830115.003.0002","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter discusses grammar. The discipline of grammar is first described in detail by a Roman teacher of rhetoric, Quintilian, in the middle of the first century AD. It was divided ‘very briefly’, in his own words, into two parts. One was the knowledge of how to speak correctly (recte loquendi scientia). This part included, as he made clear, a mastery of speech as represented in writing. The other was ‘the detailed interpretation of poets’ (poetarum enarratio). It was not enough, however, to study poetry alone; other forms of literature also had to be examined thoroughly. Grammar as it is later perceived—as a technical discipline concerned with the categories and structure of a language—had emerged historically from one whose origins had lain in the academic study of literature.","PeriodicalId":288335,"journal":{"name":"What Graeco-Roman Grammar Was About","volume":"15 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-02-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133463863","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Derivation","authors":"P. Matthews","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198830115.003.0011","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198830115.003.0011","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter studies derivations. The formation of words from words was also a topic of ancient etymology. At least as early as the first century BC, in Roman scholar Varro’s study of the Latin language, the origin of words was taken to have two aspects. One was their initial application or assignment to things. The priority at that point was that words assigned should be as few as possible, so that they could be learned more quickly. The other is distinguished in an earlier passage as the way in which ‘the derivatives of these names have arrived at their differences’. The priority there was that derivatives should be as many as possible, so that people ‘may more easily say those that they need to use’. The first aspect called for historical inquiry into forms individually. In contrast, the second required a technical study, with a few brief precepts that are as short as possible.","PeriodicalId":288335,"journal":{"name":"What Graeco-Roman Grammar Was About","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-02-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122099492","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Parts of utterances and their constructions","authors":"P. Matthews","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198830115.003.0010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198830115.003.0010","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter focuses on syntax. The term suntaxis was a compound with the meaning of ‘arrangement together’, which referred, in the context of language, to the arrangement of words in utterances. To study how they were arranged together was to study the connections between one part and another within utterances as wholes. The noun and verb are essential for the completion of an utterance. Others are successively related to them: a pronoun, for example, is a word that can be substituted, with the same role in an utterance, for a noun. The list of the parts of an utterance ended with the conjunction, which is a type of word that can join any of the others. Another type of word includes forms of two different parts of an utterance. These are the interrogatives, which are rationally either ‘nominal’ or ‘adverbial’.","PeriodicalId":288335,"journal":{"name":"What Graeco-Roman Grammar Was About","volume":"117 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-02-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122119311","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"The eight parts","authors":"P. Matthews","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198830115.003.0005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198830115.003.0005","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter identifies the parts of utterances. The ancient ‘parts’ are among the most abiding legacies of Graeco-Roman grammar. They were first distinguished in Greek. According to Quintilian, eight parts were distinguished by Aristarchus in the second century BC; it can be assumed that they were the categories of word forms that are later familiar. In the system as set out by Donatus, nouns were first distinguished from pronouns, whose roles in syntax are similar. The next were verbs and adverbs; after them first participles, then conjunctions, then prepositions. A final eighth part, corresponding to a subclass as described in Greek, was the interjection. Ultimately, the parts of utterances formed not simply a set, but what one would now see as a system, in which categories were ordered rationally, in a way that reflected the connections between them.","PeriodicalId":288335,"journal":{"name":"What Graeco-Roman Grammar Was About","volume":"68 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-02-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133397870","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Units","authors":"P. Matthews","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198830115.003.0003","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198830115.003.0003","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter examines units. The unit, called a ‘letter’ or an ‘element’, was in principle the smallest of articulated ‘vocal sound’, and the smallest in a hierarchy. In the light of their phonetic values, letters were divided into two main classes. Vowels are those ‘produced on their own’, and forming ‘on their own’ a syllable. Consonants were letters that form a syllable only in conjunction with a vowel. The next largest unit was the syllable. The syllable is defined as ‘a grouping of letters or the utterance of a single vowel which can have a temporal value’. Meanwhile, the largest unit of all was what people now call a ‘sentence’: in Greek a logos and in Latin an oratio or ‘utterance’.","PeriodicalId":288335,"journal":{"name":"What Graeco-Roman Grammar Was About","volume":"143 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-02-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122917388","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Inflectional categories","authors":"P. Matthews","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198830115.003.0007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198830115.003.0007","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter explores inflectional categories. The criteria by which inflectional categories can be established were more complex. They are not of form alone, as was, for example, the distinction between basic or ‘first-struck’ words and ones morphologically ‘derived’. Nor are they of meaning only, as, for example, the varied ‘powers’ or subtypes of conjunctions. They were of correlations between meanings and forms. Modern ‘gender’ derives from terms in Greek (genos) and Latin (genus) that applied to classes whose members have a common birth or origin: thus ‘offspring’, ‘generation’, and ‘race’. For the grammarians, the criteria by which genders are distinguished were of how forms can combine in utterances. The remaining inflectional properties are those specific to verbs and participles. The most straightforward perhaps were those of what in modern grammars is called ‘voice’: in the term used by the Greek grammarians, such as Dionysius Thrax, diathesis.","PeriodicalId":288335,"journal":{"name":"What Graeco-Roman Grammar Was About","volume":"29 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-02-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127096455","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Final comments","authors":"P. Matthews","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198830115.003.0012","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198830115.003.0012","url":null,"abstract":"This concluding chapter assesses the achievement of the Graeco-Roman grammarians, which can only be evaluated in its context. The context is in part that of their own profession, and the role it had, and they had, in ancient society. The grammarians whose writings survive were more than pedagogues. Even a simple manual could be written with an awareness of alternative views on many issues, which might be cited or criticized. Other grammars were works of scholarship, going well beyond what teachers could have needed in practice. Another part of the context is formed by the languages on which and in which ancient scholars worked. A Roman grammarian described Latin, though he might on occasion refer to ways in which it was different from Greek. A Greek grammarian, in turn, wrote only on Greek.","PeriodicalId":288335,"journal":{"name":"What Graeco-Roman Grammar Was About","volume":"215 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-02-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122852420","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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