Harmful Algae最新文献

{"title":"Microcystin-LR (MC-LR) inhibits green algae growth by regulating antioxidant and photosynthetic systems","authors":"Zhe Li ,&nbsp;Yun Zheng ,&nbsp;Hua Ma ,&nbsp;Fuyi Cui","doi":"10.1016/j.hal.2024.102623","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2024.102623","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Microcystins release from bloom-forming cyanobacteria is considered a way to gain competitive advantage in <em>Microcystis</em> populations, which threaten water resources security and aquatic ecological balance. However, the effects of microcystins on microalgae are still largely unclear. Through simulated culture experiments and the use of UHPLC-MS-based metabolomics, the effects of two microcystin-LR (MC-LR) concentrations (400 and 1,600 μg/L) on the growth and antioxidant properties of three algae species, the toxic <em>Microcystis aeruginosa</em>, a non-toxic <em>Microcystis</em> sp., and <em>Chlorella vulgaris</em>, were studied. The MC-LR caused damage to the photosynthetic system and activated the protective mechanism of the photosynthetic system by decreasing the chlorophyll-a and carotenoid concentrations. Microcystins triggered oxidative stress in <em>C. vulgaris</em>, which was the most sensitive algae species studied, and secreted more glycolipids into the extracellular compartment, thereby destroying its cell structure. However, <em>C. vulgaris</em> eliminated reactive oxygen species (ROS) by secreting terpenoids, thereby resisting oxidative stress. In addition, two metabolic pathways, the vitamin B6 and the sphingolipid pathways, of <em>C. vulgaris</em> were significantly disturbed by microcystins, contributing to cell membrane and mitochondrial damage. Thus, both the low (400 μg/L) and the high (1,600 μg/L) MC-LR concentration inhibited algae growth within 3 to 7 days, and the inhibition rates increased with the increase in the MC-LR concentration. The above results indicate that the toxin-producing <em>Microcystis</em> species have a stronger toxin tolerance under longer-term toxin exposure in natural water environments. Thus, microcystins participates in interspecific interaction and phytoplankton population regulation and creates suitable conditions for the toxin-producing <em>M. aeruginosa</em> to become the dominant species in algae blooms.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":12897,"journal":{"name":"Harmful Algae","volume":"134 ","pages":"Article 102623"},"PeriodicalIF":6.6,"publicationDate":"2024-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140542626","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Spatio-temporal connectivity of a toxic cyanobacterial community and its associated microbiome along a freshwater-marine continuum","authors":"Océane Reignier ,&nbsp;Myriam Bormans ,&nbsp;Fabienne Hervé ,&nbsp;Elise Robert ,&nbsp;Véronique Savar ,&nbsp;Simon Tanniou ,&nbsp;Zouher Amzil ,&nbsp;Cyril Noël ,&nbsp;Enora Briand","doi":"10.1016/j.hal.2024.102627","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2024.102627","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Due to climate changes and eutrophication, blooms of predominantly toxic freshwater cyanobacteria are intensifying and are likely to colonize estuaries, thus impacting benthic organisms and shellfish farming representing a major ecological, health and economic risk. In the natural environment, <em>Microcystis</em> form large mucilaginous colonies that influence the development of both cyanobacterial and embedded bacterial communities. However, little is known about the fate of natural colonies of <em>Microcystis</em> by salinity increase. In this study, we monitored the fate of a <em>Microcystis</em> dominated bloom and its microbiome along a French freshwater-marine gradient at different phases of a bloom. We demonstrated changes in the cyanobacterial genotypic composition, in the production of specific metabolites (toxins and compatible solutes) and in the heterotrophic bacteria structure in response to the salinity increase. In particular <em>M. aeruginosa</em> and <em>M. wesenbergii</em> survived salinities up to 20. Based on microcystin gene abundance, the cyanobacteria became more toxic during their estuarine transfer but with no selection of specific microcystin variants. An increase in compatible solutes occurred along the continuum with extensive trehalose and betaine accumulations. Salinity structured most the heterotrophic bacteria community, with an increased in the richness and diversity along the continuum. A core microbiome in the mucilage-associated attached fraction was highly abundant suggesting a strong interaction between <em>Microcystis</em> and its microbiome and a likely protecting role of the mucilage against an osmotic shock. These results underline the need to better determine the interactions between the <em>Microcystis</em> colonies and their microbiome as a likely key to their widespread success and adaptation to various environmental conditions.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":12897,"journal":{"name":"Harmful Algae","volume":"134 ","pages":"Article 102627"},"PeriodicalIF":6.6,"publicationDate":"2024-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1568988324000611/pdfft?md5=a36b2d89e5684a736a87705664145165&pid=1-s2.0-S1568988324000611-main.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140643705","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Succession of diversity, assembly mechanisms, and activities of the microeukaryotic community throughout Scrippsiella acuminata (Dinophyceae) bloom phases","authors":"Huatao Yuan ,&nbsp;Ling Li ,&nbsp;Yujie Wang ,&nbsp;Senjie Lin","doi":"10.1016/j.hal.2024.102626","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2024.102626","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Harmful algal bloom (HAB) is a rapidly expanding marine ecological hazard. Although numerous studies have been carried out about the ecological impact and the ecological mechanism of HAB outbreaks, few studies have comprehensively addressed the shifts of species composition, metabolic activity level, driving factors and community assembly mechanisms of microeukaryotic plankton in the course of the bloom event. To fill the gap of research, we conducted 18S ribosomal DNA and RNA sequencing during the initiation, development, sustenance and decline stages of a <em>Scrippsiella acuminata</em> (<em>S. acuminata</em>) bloom at the coastal sea of Fujian Province, China. We found that the bloom event caused a decrease in microeukaryotic plankton species diversity and increase in community homogeneity. Our results revealed that the RNA- and DNA-inferred communities were similar, but α-diversity was more dynamic in RNA- than in DNA-inferred communities. The main taxa with high projected metabolic activity (with RNA:DNA ratio as the proxy) during the bloom included dinoflagellates, Cercozoa, Chlorophyta, Protalveolata, and diatoms. The role of deterministic processes in microeukaryotic plankton community assembly increased during the bloom, but stochastic processes were always the dominant assembly mechanism throughout the bloom process. Our findings improve the understanding of temporal patterns, driving factors and assembly mechanisms underlying the microeukarytic plankton community in a dinoflagellate bloom.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":12897,"journal":{"name":"Harmful Algae","volume":"134 ","pages":"Article 102626"},"PeriodicalIF":6.6,"publicationDate":"2024-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140619431","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Electrophysiological techniques in marine microalgae study: A new perspective for harmful algal bloom (HAB) research","authors":"Zhiming Yu ,&nbsp;Zhongshi Wang ,&nbsp;Lidong Liu","doi":"10.1016/j.hal.2024.102629","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2024.102629","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Electrophysiological techniques, by measuring bioelectrical signals and ion channel activities in tissues and cells, are now widely utilized to study ion channel-related physiological functions and their underlying mechanisms. Electrophysiological techniques have been extensively employed in the investigation of animals, plants, and microorganisms; however, their application in marine algae lags behind that in other organisms. In this paper, we present an overview of current electrophysiological techniques applicable to algae while reviewing the historical usage of such techniques in this field. Furthermore, we explore the potential specific applications of electrophysiological technology in harmful algal bloom (HAB) research. The application prospects in the studies of stress tolerance, competitive advantage, nutrient absorption, toxin synthesis and secretion by HAB microalgae are discussed and anticipated herein with the aim of providing novel perspectives on HAB investigations.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":12897,"journal":{"name":"Harmful Algae","volume":"134 ","pages":"Article 102629"},"PeriodicalIF":6.6,"publicationDate":"2024-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140646769","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Discovery of a series of portimine-A fatty acid esters in mussels","authors":"Vincent Hort ,&nbsp;Sophie Bourcier","doi":"10.1016/j.hal.2024.102621","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.hal.2024.102621","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p><em>Vulcanodinium rugosum</em> is a benthic dinoflagellate known for producing pinnatoxins, pteriatoxins, portimines and kabirimine. In this study, we aimed to identify unknown analogs of these emerging toxins in mussels collected in the Ingril lagoon, France. First, untargeted data acquisitions were conducted by means of liquid chromatography coupled to hybrid quadrupole-orbitrap mass spectrometry. Data processing involved a molecular networking approach, and a workflow dedicated to the identification of biotransformed metabolites. Additionally, targeted analyses by liquid chromatography coupled to triple quadrupole mass spectrometry were also implemented to further investigate and confirm the identification of new compounds. For the first time, a series of 13-<em>O</em>-acyl esters of portimine-A (<em>n</em> = 13) were identified, with fatty acid chains ranging between C12:0 and C22:6. The profile was dominated by the palmitic acid conjugation. This discovery was supported by fractionation experiments combined with the implementation of a hydrolysis reaction, providing further evidence of the metabolite identities. Furthermore, several analogs were semi-synthesized, definitively confirming the discovery of these metabolization products. A new analog of pinnatoxin, with a molecular formula of C₄₂H₆₅NO₉, was also identified across the year 2018, with the highest concentration observed in August (4.5 μg/kg). The MS/MS data collected for this compound exhibited strong structural similarities with PnTX-A and PnTX-G, likely indicating a substituent C₂H₅O₂ in the side chain at C33. The discovery of these new analogs will contribute to deeper knowledge of the chemodiversity of toxins produced by <em>V. rugosum</em> or resulting from shellfish metabolism, thereby improving our ability to characterize the risks associated with these emerging toxins.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":12897,"journal":{"name":"Harmful Algae","volume":"134 ","pages":"Article 102621"},"PeriodicalIF":6.6,"publicationDate":"2024-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1568988324000556/pdfft?md5=9d05decb91959c36ed02e60842f57989&pid=1-s2.0-S1568988324000556-main.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140406968","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Antagonistic interactions of the dinoflagellate Alexandrium catenella under simultaneous warming and acidification","authors":"Ewaldo Leitão ,&nbsp;Diana F. Castellanos ,&nbsp;Gihong Park ,&nbsp;Hans G. Dam","doi":"10.1016/j.hal.2024.102625","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2024.102625","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>There is a concern that harmful algal bloom (HAB) species may increase under climate change. Yet, we lack understanding of how ecological interactions will be affected under ocean warming and acidification (OWA) conditions. We tested the antagonistic effects of three strains of the dinoflagellate HAB species <em>Alexandrium catenella</em> on three target species (the chlorophyte <em>Tetraselmis</em> sp., the cryptomonad <em>Rhodomonas salina</em>, and the diatom <em>Thalassiosira weissflogii</em>) at various biomass ratios between species, at ambient (16 °C and 400 µatm CO₂) and OWA (20 °C and 2000 µatm CO₂) conditions. In these experiments the <em>Alexandrium</em> strains had been raised under OWA conditions for ∼100 generations. All three non-HAB species increased their growth rate under OWA relative to ambient conditions. Growth rate inhibition was evident for <em>R. salina</em> and <em>Tetraselmis</em> sp. under OWA conditions, but not under ambient conditions. These negative effects were exacerbated at higher concentrations of <em>Alexandrium</em> relative to non-HAB species. By contrast, <em>T. weissflogii</em> showed positive growth in the presence of two strains of <em>Alexandrium</em> under ambient conditions, whereas growth was unaffected under OWA. Contrary to our expectations, <em>A. catenella</em> had a slight negative response in the presence of the diatom. These results demonstrate that <em>Alexandrium</em> exerts higher antagonistic effects under OWA compared to ambient conditions, and these effects are species-specific and density dependent. These negative effects may shift phytoplankton community composition under OWA conditions.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":12897,"journal":{"name":"Harmful Algae","volume":"134 ","pages":"Article 102625"},"PeriodicalIF":6.6,"publicationDate":"2024-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140621878","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Polyphyletic origin of saxitoxin biosynthesis genes in the marine dinoflagellate Alexandrium revealed by comparative transcriptomics","authors":"Quynh Thi Nhu Bui,&nbsp;Han-Sol Kim,&nbsp;Jang-Seu Ki","doi":"10.1016/j.hal.2024.102620","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.hal.2024.102620","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>The marine dinoflagellate <em>Alexandrium</em> is known to form harmful algal blooms, and at least 14 species within the genus can produce saxitoxins (STXs). STX biosynthesis genes (<em>sxt</em>) are individually revealed in toxic dinoflagellates; however, the evolutionary history remains controversial. Herein, we determined the transcriptome sequences of toxic <em>Alexandrium</em> (<em>A. catenella</em> and <em>A. pacificum</em>) and non-toxic <em>Alexandrium</em> (<em>A. fraterculus</em> and <em>A. fragae</em>) and characterized their <em>sxt</em> by focusing on evolutionary events and STX production. Comparative transcriptome analysis revealed higher homology of the <em>sxt</em> in toxic <em>Alexandrium</em> than in non-toxic species. Notably, non-toxic <em>Alexandrium</em> spp. were found to have lost two <em>sxt</em> core genes, namely <em>sxtA4</em> and <em>sxtG.</em> Expression levels of 28 transcripts related to eight <em>sxt</em> core genes showed that <em>sxtA, sxtG</em>, and <em>sxtI</em> were relatively high (&gt;1.5) in the toxic group compared to the non-toxic group. In contrast, the non-toxic group showed high expression levels in <em>sxtU</em> (1.9) and <em>sxtD</em> (1.7). Phylogenetic tree comparisons revealed distinct evolutionary patterns between 28S rDNA and sxtA, sxtB, sxtI, sxtD, and sxtU. However, similar topology was observed between 28S rDNA, sxtS, and sxtH/T. In the sxtB and sxtI phylogeny trees, toxic <em>Alexandrium</em> and cyanobacteria were clustered together, separating from non-toxic species. These suggest that <em>Alexandrium</em> may acquire <em>sxt</em> genes independently via horizontal gene transfer from toxic cyanobacteria and other multiple sources, demonstrating monocistronic transcripts of <em>sxt</em> in dinoflagellates.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":12897,"journal":{"name":"Harmful Algae","volume":"134 ","pages":"Article 102620"},"PeriodicalIF":6.6,"publicationDate":"2024-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140276817","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"How do seasonal temperature variations influence interplay between toxic and non-toxic cyanobacterial blooms? Evidence from modeling and experimental data","authors":"Auguste Caen ,&nbsp;Jean-Denis Mathias ,&nbsp;Delphine Latour","doi":"10.1016/j.hal.2024.102606","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.hal.2024.102606","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Summer cyanobacterial blooms exhibit a dynamic interplay between toxic and non-toxic genotypes, significantly influencing the cyanotoxin levels within a lake. The challenge lies in accurately predicting these toxin concentrations due to the significant temporal fluctuations in the proportions of toxic and non-toxic genotypes. Typically, the toxic genotypes dominate during the early and late summer periods, while the non-toxic variants prevail in mid-summer. To dissect this phenomenon, we propose a model that accounts for the competitive interaction between toxic and non-toxic genotypes, as well as seasonal temperature variations. Our numerical simulations suggest that the optimal temperature of the toxic genotypes is lower than that of the optimal temperatures of the non-toxic counterparts. This difference of optimal temperature may potentially contribute to explain the dominance of toxic genotypes at the early and late summer periods, situation often observed in the field. Experimental data from the laboratory align qualitatively with our simulation results, enabling a better understanding of complex interplays between toxic and non-toxic cyanobacteria.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":12897,"journal":{"name":"Harmful Algae","volume":"134 ","pages":"Article 102606"},"PeriodicalIF":6.6,"publicationDate":"2024-03-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1568988324000404/pdfft?md5=424d2d2614f8cac856478b20fe43bf9f&pid=1-s2.0-S1568988324000404-main.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140169322","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Response of the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum to exudates of the eelgrass Zostera marina","authors":"Alexandra Díaz-Alonso ,&nbsp;Francisco Rodríguez ,&nbsp;Pilar Riobó ,&nbsp;Xose Álvarez-Salgado ,&nbsp;Eva Teira ,&nbsp;Emilio Fernández","doi":"10.1016/j.hal.2024.102605","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2024.102605","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Biotic interactions are a key factor in the development of harmful algal blooms. Recently, a lower abundance of planktonic dinoflagellates has been reported in areas dominated by seagrass beds, suggesting a negative interaction between both groups of organisms. The interaction between planktonic dinoflagellates and marine phanerogams, as well as the way in which bacteria can affect this interaction, was studied in two experiments using a non-axenic culture of the toxic dinoflagellate <em>Alexandrium minutum</em> exposed to increasing additions of eelgrass (<em>Zostera marina</em>) exudates from old and young leaves and to the presence or absence of antibiotics. In these experiments, <em>A. minutum</em> abundance, growth rate and photosynthetic efficiency (Fv/Fm), as well as bacterial abundance, were measured every 48 h. Toxin concentration per cell was determined at the end of both experiments. Our results demonstrated that <em>Z. marina</em> exudates reduced <em>A. minutum</em> growth rate and, in one of the experiments, also the photosynthetic efficiency. These results are not an indirect effect mediated by the bacteria in the culture, although their growth modify the magnitude of the negative impact on the dinoflagellate growth rate. No clear pattern was observed in the variation of toxin production with the treatments.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":12897,"journal":{"name":"Harmful Algae","volume":"133 ","pages":"Article 102605"},"PeriodicalIF":6.6,"publicationDate":"2024-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1568988324000398/pdfft?md5=9ff62543f963490cd71afd2286265938&pid=1-s2.0-S1568988324000398-main.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139999489","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Sources and profiles of toxins in shellfish from the south-central coast of Chile (36°‒ 43° S)","authors":"Luis Norambuena-Subiabre ,&nbsp;Pamela Carbonell ,&nbsp;Pablo Salgado ,&nbsp;Claudia Zamora ,&nbsp;Oscar Espinoza-González","doi":"10.1016/j.hal.2024.102608","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2024.102608","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>The study of marine toxins in shellfish is of the utmost importance to ensure people's food safety. Marine toxins in shellfish and microalgae in the water column off the south-central coast of Chile (36°‒43° S) were studied in a network of 64 stations over a 14-month period. The relative abundance of harmful species <em>Alexandrium catenella, Alexandrium ostenfeldii, Protoceratium reticulatum, Dinophysis acuminata, Dinophysis acuta, Pseudo-nitzschia seriata</em> group and <em>P. delicatissima</em> group was analyzed. The detection and quantification of lipophilic toxins and domoic acid (DA) in shellfish was determined by UHPLC-MS/MS, and for Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (PSTs) by HPLC-FD with post-column oxidation, while for a culture of <em>A. ostenfeldii</em> a Hylic-UHPLC-MS/MS was used. Results showed that DA, gonyautoxin (GTX)-2, GTX-3 and pectenotoxin (PTX)-2 were detected below the permitted limits, while Gymnodimine (GYM)-A and 13-desmethylespirolide C (SPX-1) were below the limit of quantitation. According to the distribution and abundance record of microalgae, DA would be associated to <em>P. seriata</em> and <em>P. delicatissima</em>-groups, PTX-2 to <em>D. acuminata</em>, and GTX-2, GTX-3, GYM-A, and SPX-1 to <em>A. ostenfeldii</em>. However, the toxin analysis of an <em>A. ostenfeldii</em> culture from the Biobío region only showed the presence of the paralytic toxins C2, GTX-2, GTX-3, GTX-5 and saxitoxin, therefore, the source of production of GYM and SPX is still undetermined.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":12897,"journal":{"name":"Harmful Algae","volume":"133 ","pages":"Article 102608"},"PeriodicalIF":6.6,"publicationDate":"2024-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140031289","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}