{"title":"Collective behaviour","authors":"A. Sutton","doi":"10.4324/9780203133415-9","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203133415-9","url":null,"abstract":"At each change of length-sale in a material new science emerges. The reductionist approach focuses on the atomic and electronic length scales in the belief that a fundamental understanding can be achieved only at this smallest scale. It is blind to the emergence of science no less fundamental at larger length scales resulting from interactions between very large numbers of atoms and defects. While the atomic scale always remains important, a complete understanding of plastic deformation and fracture involves long-range interactions between defects described by the theory of elasticity. Even the mechanism of electronic conduction in a metal changes from ballistic transport at the nanoscale to the diffusive transport of Ohm’s law at the macroscale.","PeriodicalId":246400,"journal":{"name":"Concepts of Materials Science","volume":"102 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128588096","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Materials by design","authors":"A. Sutton","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192846839.003.0009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192846839.003.0009","url":null,"abstract":"Materials design brings together the engineering requirements of a material for an application with the science of the relationships between the structure, properties and method of fabrication of the material. It also takes into account the conditions into which the material will be put in service. It is different from materials selection and materials discovery. The concepts of microstructure and materials as complex systems are introduced. An example is given of materials design using a systems approach. Some materials are produced by self-assembly, as illustrated by the bubble raft, photonic crystals and quantum dots. Self-healing materials and self-cleaning glass are two examples of smart materials.","PeriodicalId":246400,"journal":{"name":"Concepts of Materials Science","volume":"30 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115854353","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Biological matter as a material","authors":"A. Sutton","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192846839.003.0011","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192846839.003.0011","url":null,"abstract":"Although it is usually obvious whether matter is animate or inanimate, it is far from easy to define life. Here we adopt as a definition the three principles identified by Paul Nurse in his recent book ‘What is life?’ There is a resurgence in the physics of life, in particular the materials science of animate matter and the emergence of complexity. This is a departure from molecular biology to a more holistic approach to understanding living matter as a self-organised complex system comprising energy-consuming, purposeful molecular machines, or agents, working collectively. An ultimate goal of synthetic biology is to create animate matter from inanimate matter. First steps have been taken, but there is still a long way to go.","PeriodicalId":246400,"journal":{"name":"Concepts of Materials Science","volume":"24 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116764320","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Quantum behaviour","authors":"A. Sutton","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192846839.003.0006","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192846839.003.0006","url":null,"abstract":"The identity and size of atoms is explicable only in quantum physics. The double slit experiment illustrates the wave-particle duality of light and of matter. To describe quantum interference the concept of a complex probability is introduced, the squared amplitude of which is the probability of a particle being at a particular location. The uncertainty relation requires atomic motion in solids even at absolute zero. The symmetry of exchanging indistinguishable particles leads to the classification of particles as fermions or bosons. The exclusion principle applies to electrons and rationalises the Periodic Table and much more. Electrons in solids exist in bands of energy. Band theory explains why some materials are electrical conductors, others are insulators or semiconductors. Chemical bonding involves quantum tunnelling of electrons. Hydrogen may diffuse in solids by quantum tunnelling. The temperature dependence of the specific heat of a solid is explicable only in quantum physics.","PeriodicalId":246400,"journal":{"name":"Concepts of Materials Science","volume":"288 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115434259","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Symmetry","authors":"A. Sutton","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192846839.003.0005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192846839.003.0005","url":null,"abstract":"Symmetry arises not only in the invariance of an object to certain operations, but also in invariance of the equations governing motion of particles. Noether’s theorem connects continuous symmetries of equations of motion to conservation laws. The concept of broken symmetry arises in phase changes and topological defects, such as dislocations and disclinations. The principle of symmetry compensation reveals a deep sense in which symmetry is never destroyed – broken symmetries relate variants of an object displaying reduced symmetry. Symmetry plays a fundamental role in characterising the physical properties of crystals through Neumann’s principle. The concept of quasiperiodicity is introduced and it is shown how it is related to periodicity in a higher dimensional crystal.","PeriodicalId":246400,"journal":{"name":"Concepts of Materials Science","volume":"90 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131933147","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Metamaterials","authors":"A. Sutton","doi":"10.29172/77fabbae1f984300996c9158ab52e6fc","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.29172/77fabbae1f984300996c9158ab52e6fc","url":null,"abstract":"Metamaterials are composites that have extended the concept of a material. They derive their properties from strong coupling between carefully designed and positioned structural units within them and an incident elastic or electromagnetic wave. They are paragons of materials design. In certain frequency ranges of the incident wave they may display properties that no other materials have ever shown, such as negative refraction. First, an elastic metamaterial demonstrates the principle. Electromagnetic metamaterials have been designed using transformation optics to cloak an object and make it invisible in a certain range of frequencies. The concept of metamaterials has been applied to protect cities and coastal regions from seismic waves and ocean waves.","PeriodicalId":246400,"journal":{"name":"Concepts of Materials Science","volume":"404 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"134212992","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Phase diagrams","authors":"A. Sutton","doi":"10.1017/9781316226889.022","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316226889.022","url":null,"abstract":"Temperature-composition phase diagrams are introduced as maps of the regions of stability of binary systems at constant pressure, usually atmospheric pressure at sea level. Their construction is based on minimisation of the Gibbs free energy as a function of composition at a given temperature. The simple case of miscibility in the solid and liquid states over the full range of composition is discussed first. Eutectic and peritectic phase diagrams result from limited miscibility in the solid state. Intermediate phases, or ordered alloys, usually occur in narrow ranges of composition in phase diagrams, and this is also explained in terms of free energy composition curves. Each phase diagram is shown to obey the phase rule discussed in the previous chapter.","PeriodicalId":246400,"journal":{"name":"Concepts of Materials Science","volume":"106 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124771576","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"When is a material stable?","authors":"A. Sutton","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192846839.003.0001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192846839.003.0001","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter is an introduction to classical thermodynamics that does not assume any knowledge of the subject. The significance of thermodynamic equilibrium in materials is discussed keeping in mind that it is rarely achieved in practice. The concepts of thermodynamic systems, components, work, energy, phase, absolute temperature, heat, potential energy, internal energy, state variables, intensive and extensive variables are introduced and defined. The first and second laws of thermodynamics are introduced. The concept of entropy is discussed in terms of irreversibility, the direction of time and microstates of the system. Configurational entropy is illustrated with the example of a binary alloy. The Helmholtz and Gibbs free energies are introduced and their physical significance is discussed in terms of the conditions for a material to be in equilibrium with its environment. This leads to a discussion of chemical potentials, the Gibbs-Duhem relation for each phase present and the phase rule.","PeriodicalId":246400,"journal":{"name":"Concepts of Materials Science","volume":"32 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133507286","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Defects","authors":"A. Sutton","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192846839.003.0004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192846839.003.0004","url":null,"abstract":"Over time materials change. A material changes towards thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment, or away from equilibrium if it is subjected to external influences such as mechanical deformation, irradiation and chemical attack. In crystalline materials defects are the agents of change. Point defects are agents of diffusion, line defects called dislocations are agents of plastic (permanent) deformation, and planar defects called grain boundaries are agents of recrystallisation and many other processes. In metals diffusion occurs primarily through the motion of vacancies. There is a population of such vacancies in thermodynamic equilibrium. Experimental evidence for their existence and their free energy of formation is presented. The ease of movement of dislocations governs the strength and ductility of crystalline materials. In insulators defects may be electrically charged. Many properties of crystalline materials are governed by defects and their interactions.","PeriodicalId":246400,"journal":{"name":"Concepts of Materials Science","volume":"65 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"117205541","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Restless motion","authors":"A. Sutton","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192846839.003.0003","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192846839.003.0003","url":null,"abstract":"Atoms in solids are in constant random motion. Their kinetic energy is heat. Heat associated with local regions may fluctuate. The size of the fluctuations increases with decreasing size of the region. Such fluctuations enable thermally activated processes to occur. At equilibrium interstitials and vacancies undergo random walks in solids, which gives rise to diffusion in crystals and reptation in polymers. The activation energy is the free energy barrier these defects have to overcome to jump between sites. Diffusion is biased by driving forces resulting from gradients of chemical potential. The mobility relates the drift velocity of defects to the driving force on them. The Einstein relation relates the mobility to the diffusivity. It is an example of the fluctuation-dissipation theorem. Atomic motion enables diffusion and limits mobility. Thermal expansion is also a consequence of atomic motion, resulting from a fundamental asymmetry in all interatomic forces.","PeriodicalId":246400,"journal":{"name":"Concepts of Materials Science","volume":"9 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131150772","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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