{"title":"Written on the Darkest Pages of Human History, 1991–2000","authors":"R. Schoppa","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190497354.003.0008","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190497354.003.0008","url":null,"abstract":"From the standpoint of the 1990s, the twentieth century seems to have ended on especially depressing notes. Run through the catalogue of tragedy: the hopeful Oslo Accords go dead with the assassination of Yitzhak Rabin (1995); Serbian-Slovenian War (1991); Serbian-Croatian War (1991–1995); Bosnian War (1992–1996); first Congo War (1996–1997); Great War of Africa (1998–2003), where 6 million were killed; and the Kosovo War (1998–1999). Their driving force was nationalism, undoubtedly, some found themselves the key. For Aung San Suu Kyi of Burma (Myanmar) her choice in the three-tiered political identity was the nation for which she gave up her family and all the global ideals in the beginning of her career: human rights, democracy, and individual freedom.","PeriodicalId":196482,"journal":{"name":"The Twentieth Century","volume":"35 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-09-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129443158","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Struggling for Equality, Freedom, and Peace, 1966–1979","authors":"R. Schoppa","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190497354.003.0006","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190497354.003.0006","url":null,"abstract":"The title of this chapter points to three objectives fought for in this period: equality, freedom, and peace. Among those seeking equality were women and those whose sexual identity was LGBTQ. As the Mexico City meeting showed, women were not of one mind about what issues they should focus on. Those seeking peace were the big “losers.” The 1970s was the context for three genocides. In 1971, the West Pakistan military put East Pakistanis under the gun. Killed by West Pakistani Muslims were 300,000 to 3 million East Pakistanis (many Hindus). The genocide’s basis was nationalism and religious violence. Those raped totaled 200,000 to 300,000. In an ethnic struggle in east-central Africa in 1972, the ethnic Tutsis killed 80,000 to 210,000 Hutus. Then in Cambodia (renamed Kampuchea) from 1975 to 1979, Cambodians slaughtered 2 million of their fellow Cambodians (25% of the population). The slaughtered had followed Western ways and culture before the revolution.","PeriodicalId":196482,"journal":{"name":"The Twentieth Century","volume":"16 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-09-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121610358","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Worlds Blown Apart, 1937–1949","authors":"R. Schoppa","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190497354.003.0004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190497354.003.0004","url":null,"abstract":"The years 1937–1949 were a pandemic of global violence with Hitler, Mussolini, Togo, and Stalin leading the way. Each had goals that drove them. Hitler wanted to build an Aryan empire using land that stretched from Germany to the Ural Mountains as Lebensraum; and he wanted to destroy the Jews and others from whom he took offense. Mussolini wanted power and an empire in northeast Africa. Though Togo was not a ruler like the others, all Japanese leaders wanted to defeat and humiliate China and become the East Asian superpower. Stalin wanted to eliminate his enemies and to initiate military successes that would make the Soviet Union a major nation and prove that communism was a viable foundation for a state. Hitler, Mussolini, and Togo lost their wars; Stalin was an ally after Germany’s invasion of the Soviet Union. Hitler’s most heinous legacy was the Holocaust.","PeriodicalId":196482,"journal":{"name":"The Twentieth Century","volume":"100 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-09-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122606292","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Bright Triumphs, Dark Disasters, 1980–1991","authors":"R. Schoppa","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190497354.003.0007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190497354.003.0007","url":null,"abstract":"The 1980s did celebrate space achievements and Berners-Lee’s World Wide Web. But after those memorable events, this decade brought major technological disasters. The Union Carbide gas leak at Bophal, India, in December 1984 killed almost 4,000 immediately. The wreck of the Exxon Valdez off the coast of Alaska in 1988 cost the lives of countless ocean birds and mammals and left 11 million gallons of oil in the ocean. The darkest event was history’s worst nuclear disaster in Chernobyl, Ukraine, on April 26, 1986. An eighteen square-mile area surrounding the nuclear plant and its contiguous town Pripyat was made a no-man’s land, not being safe to return for 3,000 years. One last tragedy of the 1980s was the dropping of poison gas on Iraqi Kurds living in the city of Halabja during the Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988). The attack killed 3,200 to 5,000 Kurds; 210,000 were injured. The Iraq High Criminal Court in 2010 acknowledged that the Halabja massacre was an act of genocide.","PeriodicalId":196482,"journal":{"name":"The Twentieth Century","volume":"35 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-09-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127464480","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Claustrophobia: Totalitarianism and the Great Depression, 1920–1936","authors":"R. Schoppa","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190497354.003.0003","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190497354.003.0003","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter focuses on two of the three-tiered political identities, specifically the power of individual control (localism) and the force of nationalism. After the Great War, the 1920s roared with the possibilities of wealth, pleasure, the good life. Women seemed to be at the center of things: the “flapper,” homemaker, and female suffrage worlds. Yet national ambitions of Germany, Italy, Japan, and the Soviet Union were put on the fast track of totalitarianism working by way of fascism, monarchical dictatorship, and communism. The policies of those four placed thousands of people in “iron houses” to be suffocated, or, more likely, executed. To deal with these tragedies, the long shot seemed perhaps to be the wide-ranging individualism of Lu Xun, the “duende” of Garcia Lorca, and the initiative of countless others to try to exorcise nationalism run amok.","PeriodicalId":196482,"journal":{"name":"The Twentieth Century","volume":"7 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-09-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129664800","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"A New Day? Revolution, Cold War, and Decolonization, 1950–1965","authors":"R. Schoppa","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190497354.003.0005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190497354.003.0005","url":null,"abstract":"In the aftermath of World War II, global realities seemed to have been grouped into binary formats: the United States and the USSR in a policy the United States called “containment” and included the establishment of NATO and the Warsaw Pact, the Berlin Airlift, the Cuban Missile Crisis; and the Korean War. Violent decolonization rose for Great Britain in Malaysia and Kenya and for France in Vietnam and Algeria. Another chapter dichotomy was the general success of the civil rights movement in the United States and the concomitant strengthening of apartheid in South Africa.","PeriodicalId":196482,"journal":{"name":"The Twentieth Century","volume":"164 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-09-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130729791","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"The Great War and Social Change, 1900–1919","authors":"R. Schoppa","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780190497354.003.0002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190497354.003.0002","url":null,"abstract":"In 1914, nationalism was the political “ism” that seemed the motive choice, but ironically that is when “globalization” defined as “extending to other or all parts of the world” became clearly evident. The Great War tied the globe together: colonies participated in the fighting, and thousands of the colonized were sent to Europe to serve in labor or military units. This was not the first sign of a world coming together. The late nineteenth century witnessed globalization’s advance: 52 million Europeans migrated to the Americas, adopting a new culture. Similarly, industrialization globalized, bringing increased commerce on the world scene. At war’s end, the Spanish flu brought the globe together against the pandemic. The war did not change the world’s views on nationalism as the national intrigue and deal making at the Versailles Conference underscores.","PeriodicalId":196482,"journal":{"name":"The Twentieth Century","volume":"23 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-09-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116904279","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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