Conservation Letters最新文献

{"title":"Urgent actions needed by digital services platforms to help achieve conservation and public health goals","authors":"Daniel J. Ingram, Thais Q. Morcatty, Hani R. El Bizri, Mahesh Poudyal, Edward Mundy","doi":"10.1111/conl.13023","DOIUrl":"10.1111/conl.13023","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Wildlife use is widespread across the world where animals and their derivates are consumed and/or traded (Ingram et al., <span>2021</span>). When the use is unsustainable, it is a leading cause of biodiversity loss worldwide, with profound consequences for ecosystem services and functions (IPBES, <span>2022</span>). In December 2022, Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity adopted the Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, agreeing to achieve the sustainable use and management of biodiversity as one of four central goals by 2050. Furthermore, the COVID-19 pandemic has focussed global attention on the wildlife trade and potential risk of zoonotic emerging infectious disease spread. From February 2023, the World Health Organization (WHO) has been negotiating drafts of a global Pandemic Agreement, calling for collective action on pandemic prevention, preparedness, and response, including the need to “take measures to reduce risks of zoonotic spill-over” (Article 4; World Health Organisation, <span>2024</span>). Given how wholly interconnected these issues are, leveraging approaches that tackle integrated issues around the health of people, animals, and ecosystems, such as One Health and Planetary Health approaches (de Castañeda et al., <span>2023</span>), will be paramount to addressing the global challenges of biodiversity loss and zoonotic disease emergence.</p><p>Managing the use of wildlife can be challenging for many reasons, including the number of actors involved along varied supply chains across rural and urban areas, the complexities around the legality of trade in different circumstances, and the capacities of governments to act (Ingram et al., <span>2021</span>). The COVID-19 pandemic prompted a worldwide initiative to end the wildlife trade (Coalition to End the Trade, <span>2020</span>), resulting in certain countries banning physical wildlife markets. Yet, it is becoming increasingly evident that digital services platforms, particularly social media platforms, are playing a pivotal role in the legal and illegal trade of wildlife (Morcatty et al., <span>2021</span>). Yet, little has been done to stem the illegal online trade of wildlife, which undermines efforts to manage the trade effectively, sustainably, and safely (Morcatty et al., <span>2021</span>). Here, we highlight two major ways in which technology companies running global social media, e-commerce (marketplaces), and content-sharing platforms (hereafter just “tech companies”) can assist in achieving the goals of the Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework and the WHO Pandemic Agreement.</p><p>For the latter, examples could include public lists of tech companies, which are not part of groups working to reduce online illegal wildlife trade (Sebagh, <span>2021</span>), and transparent monitoring of such groups to ensure that activities are taking place and reporting tools are effective. Furthermore, monitored trade should not only include high-value w","PeriodicalId":157,"journal":{"name":"Conservation Letters","volume":"17 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":7.7,"publicationDate":"2024-05-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/conl.13023","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141074082","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Risk assessments underestimate threat of pesticides to wild bees","authors":"René S. Shahmohamadloo,&nbsp;Mathilde L. Tissier,&nbsp;Laura Melissa Guzman","doi":"10.1111/conl.13022","DOIUrl":"10.1111/conl.13022","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Ecological risk assessments (ERAs) are crucial when developing national strategies to manage adverse effects from pesticide exposure to natural populations. Yet, estimating risk with surrogate species in controlled laboratory studies jeopardizes the ERA process because natural populations exhibit intraspecific variation within and across species. Here, we investigate the extent to which the ERA process underestimates the risk from pesticides on different species by conducting a meta-analysis of all records in the ECOTOX Knowledgebase for honey bees and wild bees exposed to neonicotinoids. We found the knowledgebase is largely populated by acute lethality data on the Western honey bee and exhibits within and across species variation in LD50 up to 6 orders of magnitude from neonicotinoid exposure. We challenge the reliability of surrogate species as predictors when extrapolating pesticide toxicity data to wild pollinators and recommend solutions to address the (a)biotic interactions occurring in nature that make such extrapolations unreliable in the ERA process.</p>","PeriodicalId":157,"journal":{"name":"Conservation Letters","volume":"17 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":7.7,"publicationDate":"2024-05-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/conl.13022","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140949729","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Ocean protection quality is lagging behind quantity: Applying a scientific framework to assess real marine protected area progress against the 30 by 30 target","authors":"Elizabeth P. Pike,&nbsp;Jessica M. C. MacCarthy,&nbsp;Sarah O. Hameed,&nbsp;Nikki Harasta,&nbsp;Kirsten Grorud-Colvert,&nbsp;Jenna Sullivan-Stack,&nbsp;Joachim Claudet,&nbsp;Barbara Horta e Costa,&nbsp;Emanuel J. Gonçalves,&nbsp;Angelo Villagomez,&nbsp;Lance Morgan","doi":"10.1111/conl.13020","DOIUrl":"10.1111/conl.13020","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The international community set a global conservation target to protect at least 30% of the ocean by 2030 (“30 × 30”) to reverse biodiversity loss, including through marine protected areas (MPAs). However, varied MPAs result in significantly different conservation outcomes, making MPA coverage alone an inadequate metric. We used <i>The MPA Guide</i> framework to assess the the world's largest 100 MPAs by area, representing nearly 90% of reported global MPA coverage and 7.3% of the global ocean area, and analyzed the distribution of MPA quality across political and ecological regions. A quarter of the assessed MPA coverage is not implemented, and one-third is incompatible with the conservation of nature. Two factors contribute to this outcome: (1) many reported MPAs lack regulations or management, and (2) some MPAs allow high-impact activities. Fully and highly protected MPAs account for one-third of the assessed area but are unevenly distributed across ecoregions in part because some nations have designated large, highly protected MPAs in their overseas or remote territories. Indicators of MPA quality, not only coverage, are needed to ensure a global network of MPAs that covers at least 30% of the ocean and effectively safeguards representative marine ecosystems from destructive human activities.</p>","PeriodicalId":157,"journal":{"name":"Conservation Letters","volume":"17 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":8.5,"publicationDate":"2024-05-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/conl.13020","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140895917","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Ecological grief literacy: Approaches for responding to environmental loss","authors":"Anna Cooke,&nbsp;Claudia Benham,&nbsp;Nathalie Butt,&nbsp;Julie Dean","doi":"10.1111/conl.13018","DOIUrl":"10.1111/conl.13018","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Environmental losses are increasingly evoking ‘‘ecological grief’’ among environmental and conservation professionals. Ecological grief is a natural but difficult psychological experience, and a risk to well-being. Despite this, there are currently few resources available to support environmental professionals and their organizations to reduce the risks to well-being and cope effectively with ecological grief. As a result, environmental professionals who experience this risk in the workplace are unlikely to be equipped with the knowledge, skills, or context to support themselves, colleagues, or peers, in experiences of ecological grief. In this paper, we provide information, guidance, and examples of workplace support for ecological grief. Drawing on insights from the field of grief and bereavement, we identify peer support and organizational responses as key supportive factors for those experiencing ecological grief. We also present a new concept, ‘‘ecological grief literacy,’’ to guide effective peer and organizational support. While peers have the potential to provide interpersonal support and connection for ecological grieving, it is essential that the organizations that employ environmental professionals enact policies and practices that provide structures, resources, and contexts to enable environmental professionals to effectively support ourselves and each other.</p>","PeriodicalId":157,"journal":{"name":"Conservation Letters","volume":"17 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":8.5,"publicationDate":"2024-05-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/conl.13018","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140881312","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Genomic conservation of Mongolian horses promoted by preservation of the intangible cultural heritage of Naadam in Mongolia","authors":"Togtokh Mongke,&nbsp;Undarmaa Budsuren,&nbsp;Aertengqimike Tiemuqier,&nbsp;Elif Bozlak,&nbsp;Barbara Wallner,&nbsp;Samdanjamts Dulamsuren,&nbsp;Dorjsuren Daidiikhuu,&nbsp;Saruuljargal Amgalan,&nbsp;Tana An,&nbsp;Baoyindeligeer Mongkejargal,&nbsp;Wenbo Li,&nbsp;Sarula Borjgin,&nbsp;Manglai Dugarjaviin,&nbsp;Haige Han","doi":"10.1111/conl.13019","DOIUrl":"10.1111/conl.13019","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Uncontrolled crossbreeding is a major challenge to the conservation of landrace horses in East Asia. Understanding the factors driving this trend is crucial for effective conservation efforts. Here, we investigate the genomic makeup of 40 Mongolian Naadam racehorses and 21 Asian landrace horse breeds through analyzing whole-genome resequencing and Y chromosome data. Our results show that crossbreeding practices are linked to horse-racing traditions. Regions characterized by strong horse-racing traditions and a lack of crossbreeding regulations exhibit significant levels of exotic genetic introgression, as observed in populations from Inner Mongolia and Central Asia. However, in Mongolia, despite having strong horse-racing traditions, the implementation of policies aimed at preserving traditional horse-racing culture effectively reduces exotic introgression. These results suggest that horse-racing traditions are the main driver of crossbreeding practices. Our research highlights that the preservation of traditional values in landrace horses, achieved through carefully managed horse-racing activities, can lead to successful conservation outcomes.</p>","PeriodicalId":157,"journal":{"name":"Conservation Letters","volume":"17 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":8.5,"publicationDate":"2024-05-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/conl.13019","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140821430","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"To conserve African tropical forests, invest in the protection of its most endangered group of monkeys, red colobus","authors":"Joshua M. Linder,&nbsp;Drew T. Cronin,&nbsp;Nelson Ting,&nbsp;Ekwoge E. Abwe,&nbsp;Florence Aghomo,&nbsp;Tim R. B. Davenport,&nbsp;Kate M. Detwiler,&nbsp;Gérard Galat,&nbsp;Anh Galat-Luong,&nbsp;John A. Hart,&nbsp;Rachel A. Ikemeh,&nbsp;Stanislaus M. Kivai,&nbsp;Inza Koné,&nbsp;William Konstant,&nbsp;Deo Kujirakwinja,&nbsp;Barney Long,&nbsp;Fiona Maisels,&nbsp;W. Scott McGraw,&nbsp;Russell A. Mittermeier,&nbsp;Thomas T. Struhsaker","doi":"10.1111/conl.13014","DOIUrl":"10.1111/conl.13014","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Forest loss and overhunting are eroding African tropical biodiversity and threatening local human food security, livelihoods, and health. Emblematic of this ecological crisis is Africa's most endangered group of monkeys, the red colobus (genus <i>Piliocolobus</i>). All 17 species, found in forests from Senegal in the west to the Zanzibar archipelago in the east, are threatened with extinction. Red colobus are among the most vulnerable mammals to gun hunting, typically disappearing from heavily hunted forests before most other large-bodied animals. Despite their conservation status, they are rarely a focus of conservation attention and continue to be understudied. However, red colobus can act as critical barometers of forest health and serve as flagships for catalyzing broader African tropical forest conservation efforts. We offer a plan for conservation of red colobus and their habitats and discuss conservation and policy implications.</p>","PeriodicalId":157,"journal":{"name":"Conservation Letters","volume":"17 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":8.5,"publicationDate":"2024-04-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/conl.13014","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140817542","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Positive effects of fragmentation per se on the most iconic metapopulation","authors":"Carmen Galán-Acedo,&nbsp;Lenore Fahrig,&nbsp;Federico Riva,&nbsp;Torsti Schulz","doi":"10.1111/conl.13017","DOIUrl":"10.1111/conl.13017","url":null,"abstract":"<p>While habitat loss is a major threat to species, the effects of habitat fragmentation independent of habitat loss (fragmentation per se) are debated. Metapopulation studies often assert negative fragmentation effects, but they do not measure fragmentation per se. We evaluate the effects of fragmentation per se (patch density) across 20 years of patch occupancy patterns of the Åland Islands Glanville fritillary butterfly, Finland, a famous model system in metapopulation studies. Fragmentation per se had mainly positive effects on patch occupancy, the proportion of years occupied per patch, and patch colonization, and negative effects on patch extinction. These results suggest that fragmentation per se does not threaten persistence of the Åland Islands Glanville fritillary butterfly. Our results support the growing body of research challenging the paradigm that habitat fragmentation per se is mostly negative for species, highlighting the value of small patches for species conservation.</p>","PeriodicalId":157,"journal":{"name":"Conservation Letters","volume":"17 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":8.5,"publicationDate":"2024-04-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/conl.13017","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140621508","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Sustainable commodity sourcing requires measuring and governing land use change at multiple scales","authors":"Erasmus KHJ zu Ermgassen,&nbsp;Cécile Renier,&nbsp;Andrea Garcia,&nbsp;Tomás Carvalho,&nbsp;Patrick Meyfroidt","doi":"10.1111/conl.13016","DOIUrl":"10.1111/conl.13016","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The increased availability of remote sensing products and new legislative agendas are driving a growing focus on farm-level traceability and monitoring to tackle commodity-driven deforestation. Here, we use data on land use change in Brazil (1985–2021) from Mapbiomas to demonstrate how analyses of the drivers of deforestation are sensitive to the scale of analysis: while pixel- or property-level analyses identify proximate drivers of deforestation, analyses at larger scales (subnational regions or countries) capture more complex land use dynamics, including indirect land use change. We argue that initiatives which seek to monitor and address commodity-driven deforestation—such as the European Union's deforestation due-diligence regulation and the World Business Council on Sustainable Development's Greenhouse Gas Protocol—must be conscient of these wider land use dynamics. Only by measuring progress and defining success at multiple scales can initiatives for sustainable commodity sourcing create the right mix of incentives for addressing deforestation.</p>","PeriodicalId":157,"journal":{"name":"Conservation Letters","volume":"17 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":8.5,"publicationDate":"2024-04-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/conl.13016","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140547990","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Teacher toads: Buffering apex predators from toxic invaders in a remote tropical landscape","authors":"Georgia Ward-Fear,&nbsp;Bunuba Rangers,&nbsp;Miles Bruny,&nbsp;Corrin Everitt,&nbsp;Richard Shine","doi":"10.1111/conl.13012","DOIUrl":"10.1111/conl.13012","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Even after research identifies new approaches for wildlife management, translating those methods for delivery can be logistically challenging. In tropical Australia, invasive cane toads (<i>Rhinella marina</i>) fatally poison many anuran-eating native predators. Small-scale trials show that vulnerable predators exposed to small (nonlethal) toads can learn to delete toads from their diets, increasing survival of those predators after toads invade. We deployed this method in the remote Kimberley region of tropical Australia, with &gt;200,000 eggs, tadpoles, or metamorph toads released in advance of the expanding toad invasion front. Remote camera surveys before and after “teacher toad” deployment showed that large monitor lizards (<i>Varanus panoptes</i>) were almost extirpated from control plots but remained abundant in treatment plots, indicating broad-scale success of this novel intervention.</p>","PeriodicalId":157,"journal":{"name":"Conservation Letters","volume":"17 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":8.5,"publicationDate":"2024-04-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/conl.13012","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140541484","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Destructive fishing: An expert-driven definition and exploration of this quasi-concept","authors":"Arlie Hannah McCarthy,&nbsp;Daniel Steadman,&nbsp;Hannah Richardson,&nbsp;Jack Murphy,&nbsp;Sophie Benbow,&nbsp;Joshua I. Brian,&nbsp;Holly Brooks,&nbsp;Giulia Costa-Domingo,&nbsp;Carolina Hazin,&nbsp;Chris McOwen,&nbsp;Jessica Walker,&nbsp;David F. Willer,&nbsp;Mohamad Abdi,&nbsp;Peter J. Auster,&nbsp;Roy Bealey,&nbsp;Robert Bensted-Smith,&nbsp;Kathryn Broadburn,&nbsp;Gonçalo Carvalho,&nbsp;Tom Collinson,&nbsp;Bolanle Erinosho,&nbsp;Michael Fabinyi,&nbsp;Senia Febrica,&nbsp;Wilson Ngwa Forbi,&nbsp;Serge M Garcia,&nbsp;David Goad,&nbsp;Lynda Goldsworthy,&nbsp;Hugh Govan,&nbsp;Charles Heaphy,&nbsp;Jan Geert Hiddink,&nbsp;Gilles Hosch,&nbsp;Daniel Kachelriess,&nbsp;Jeff Kinch,&nbsp;Alana Malinde S. N. Lancaster,&nbsp;Frédéric Le Manach,&nbsp;Thomas Matthews,&nbsp;Alfonso Medellín Ortiz,&nbsp;Alexia Morgan,&nbsp;Helena Motta,&nbsp;Hilario Murua,&nbsp;Naveen Namboothri,&nbsp;Evelyne Ndiritu,&nbsp;Kelvin Passfield,&nbsp;Nicolas J. Pilcher,&nbsp;James O. Portus,&nbsp;Juan M. Rguez-Baron,&nbsp;Morven Robertson,&nbsp;Abhilasha Sharma,&nbsp;Cristián G. Suazo,&nbsp;Leandro Luis Tamini,&nbsp;Juan Vilata-Simón,&nbsp;Nibedita Mukherjee","doi":"10.1111/conl.13015","DOIUrl":"10.1111/conl.13015","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Numerous policy and international frameworks consider that “destructive fishing” hampers efforts to reach sustainability goals. Though ubiquitous, “destructive fishing” is undefined and therefore currently immeasurable. Here we propose a definition developed through expert consultation: “Destructive fishing is any fishing practice that causes irrecoverable habitat degradation, or which causes significant adverse environmental impacts, results in long-term declines in target or nontarget species beyond biologically safe limits and has negative livelihood impacts.” We show strong stakeholder support for a definition, consensus on many biological and ecological dimensions, and no clustering of respondents from different sectors. Our consensus definition is a significant step toward defining sustainable fisheries goals and will help interpret and implement global political commitments which utilize the term “destructive fishing.” Our definition and results will help reinforce the Food and Agricultural Organization's Code of Conduct and meaningfully support member countries to prohibit destructive fishing practices.</p>","PeriodicalId":157,"journal":{"name":"Conservation Letters","volume":"17 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":8.5,"publicationDate":"2024-03-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/conl.13015","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140317182","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}