{"title":"膳食多糖乳化特性研究进展","authors":"Chao Ai","doi":"10.1002/efd2.106","DOIUrl":null,"url":null,"abstract":"<p>Emulsion, a disperse system, generally consists of two immiscible liquids, where one of the liquids (dispersed phase) is dispersed as droplets in the other liquid (continuous phase). Taking emulsion as delivery system is a great strategy for enhancing the stability and bioavailability of bioactivity substances (Cao, et al., <span>2021</span>; Jagtiani, <span>2021</span>; Lu et al., <span>2016</span>). Thus, emulsion system is widely used in food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industry. In particular, to enhance the flavor and taste of food, emulsion is also used in some common foods, such as mayonnaise, cream, and material for three-dimensional food printing (Figure 1). Emulsifier plays a key role in the formation of emulsion system. The most common emulsifiers contain small molecule surfactant, natural amphiphilic macromolecule, solid particle, and auxiliary emulsifier (Amiri-Rigi et al., <span>2023</span>). Among them, amphiphilic polysaccharides, such as pectin, gum arabic, and galactomannans, are important members of the natural amphiphilic macromolecule, and have been utilized as food-grade emulsifiers (Feng, et al., <span>2023</span>; Niu, Hou, et al., <span>2022</span>). Compared with protein, the hydrated layer formed by polysaccharides possess relatively higher steric hindrance which improves the emulsion stability (Lin, et al., <span>2020</span>). Furthermore, the low digestibility of polysaccharide in digestive tract will result in delaying release rate of the bioactivities (Anal et al., <span>2019</span>). In view of the advantage and importance of amphiphilic polysaccharides, a growing number of studies focus on the discovery of natural polysaccharides which possess the ability to stabilize oil-water interface. As shown in Figure 2, the number of publications centered on “polysaccharide and emulsion” (Indexed by WOS) gradually increased since 2011 and rapidly increased in the last 3 years (from 2019 to 2021). This review highlights on recent advances in the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides, furtherly the structure–activity relationship, influencing factors, and improvement technologies.</p><p>The emulsifying properties of polysaccharides contain emulsifying activity and emulsifying stability. Emulsifying activity refers to the ability of polysaccharides to absorb on the oil-water interface and shape interfacial film. It presents as the droplet size of the emulsion stabilized by polysaccharides at critical concentration. In the case of emulsifying stability, it is reflected by the ability of interfacial film shaped by poysaccharides for preventing the aggregation of oil droplets and maintaining the uniform texture of emulsion during storage and process. The emulsifying properties of polysaccharides could be evaluated from several aspects as the followings.</p><p>The surface hydrophobicity index and interfacial tension are the most popular indirect indexes for forecasting the interfacial activity of polysaccharide (Chen, et al., <span>2019</span>; Ravera, et al., <span>2021</span>). Generally, the higher of the surface hydrophobicity index means the higher activity of polysaccharides to absorb onto the oil surface, and the lower interfacial tension indicates the higher ability of the polysaccharides to stabilize the oil−water interface. Besides, the turbidimetric method, containing the emulsifying activity index and emulsifying stability index, is a classic method for evaluating the emulsifying properties of polysaccharide methods (Yan et al., <span>2021</span>). The advantage of this method is easy to execute, but the defect of this method is fail to determine the oil droplet size and distribution which are the most important data for study the emulsion system. Fortunately, with the development of science and technology, the instruments based on the laser diffraction and dynamic light scattering technology could be used to observe the droplet size and distribution of the emulsion stabilized by polysaccharides (Lin, Guo, et al., <span>2020</span>; Lin, Yu, et al., <span>2020</span>; Zhang et al., <span>2021</span>). As a result, the droplet size and distribution of emulsion become the most popular and direct index to evaluate the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides. Furthermore, some optics and imaging technologies, such as optical microscope, transmission electron microscope, atomic force microscope, and confocal scanning laser microscope, could use to observe the microscopic morphology of droplets and calculate the droplets size by the corresponding ruler (Ai et al., <span>2019</span>; Ho et al., <span>2022</span>; Li et al., <span>2019</span>). Notably, microscopic morphology is an important evidence to distinguish the coalescence, aggregation, and flocculation of emulsion droplets, thereby studying the emulsifying stability of polysaccharides (Ai, Meng, et al., <span>2022</span>; Ai, Zhao, et al., <span>2022</span>).</p><p>Recently studies show that the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides could be influenced by several structural elements, including esterified group, molecular weight, protein moiety, phenolic acids, and charged groups (e.g., amino group, carboxyl group, and sulfate group) (Figure 3). Among the above structural elements, the esterified group, protein moiety, and phenolic acids are regarded as hydrophobic anchors which absorbed onto the oil surface, and play vital roles of the emulsifying activity of polysaccharides (Ai et al., <span>2020</span>). The molecular weight of polysaccharides is related to the viscosity and steric hindrance, which significantly influences the emulsion stability. Besides, the carboxyl group would provide electrostatic repulsion to reduce the close up of oil droplets and enhance the stability of emulsion system (Lin et al., <span>2021</span>). In particular, the molecular configuration of polysaccharides is a special factor. It would not influence the emulsifying properties directly, but influence the exposure of the hydrophobic groups of polysaccharides, thereby effecting the efficiency and difficulty of hydrophobic group absorbing to the oil surface, as a result, the emulsifying activity of the polysaccharides could be influenced (Ai, Meng, et al., <span>2022</span>; Ai, Zhao, et al., <span>2022</span>; Jiang et al., <span>2020</span>; Matsuyama, et al., <span>2021</span>). Furthermore, the molecular configuration of polysaccharides also influences the thickness of the interfacial film which contributes to the stability of the emulsion system (Lin, Guo, et al., <span>2020</span>; Lin, Yu, et al., <span>2020</span>).</p><p>The external elements for influencing the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides mainly includes oil phase content, oil type, polysaccharide usage, energy input, pH value, salts, temperature, gravity, and so forth (Figure 4). The oil phase content/type and polysaccharide usage mainly influence the adsorption density of the hydrophobic anchor on the interface, thereby effecting the droplet size (Du, et al., <span>2022</span>; Ma, et al., <span>2019</span>; Zhu, et al., <span>2019</span>). In addition, oil and polysaccharide are the main contributors of the viscosity of emulsion, which is highly related to the emulsion stability (Ai et al., <span>2019</span>; Shao, et al., <span>2020</span>). The most common energy input modes for the emulsion preparation include high speed shear, ultrasonic, high-pressure homogenization, and high-pressure microfluidization (Chen et al., <span>2018</span>). The different emulsion preparation methods would influence the efficiency of polysaccharides to absorb onto oil surface, what's more, some violent energy input mode, such as high-pressure and high power ultrasonic, would result in the change of molecule chain of polysaccharides (Benchamas et al., <span>2020</span>; Raoufi et al., <span>2019</span>). Generally, the efficiency order of the above energy input mode is: high-pressure microfluidization > high-pressure homogenization > ultrasonic > high speed shear. Notably, the ultrasonic method is not applicable in oil-water systems with high viscosity due to the poor transmission efficiency. The effect of pH on the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides is mainly acted on the charged group (Ai et al., <span>2019</span>; Xiong, et al., <span>2020</span>). Obviously, the ionization degree of charged group will result in the change of intramolecular or intermolecular force, thereby changing the molecular configuration. Therefore, the optimal emulsifying properties of polysaccharides should be performed in a suitable pH value. In the case of salts, it could screen the electrostatic charge of polysaccharides in aqueous solution to reduce the electrostatic repulsion (Xu et al., <span>2017</span>). Moreover, the multivalent cations ionized from salts, such as calcium, can shape as “calcium bridge” and electrostatically combine with multiple negatively charged polysaccharides, thus resulting in the aggregation of polysaccharides and changing the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides (Ai et al., <span>2020</span>). Besides, settling or floating will be emerged in emulsion system due to the effect of gravity (Niu, Wang, et al., <span>2022</span>). According to the “Stokes Law,” the settling or floating can be easier occurred in the emulsion system with high initial droplet size (Xu, et al., <span>2020</span>). It suggests that when the emulsifying activity is effected which results in the change of initial droplet size of emulsion, the emulsion stability will also be influenced.</p><p>Natural polysaccharides are hard to meet the requirement for preparing specific emulsion system for nutrition delivering. Based on the above external and structural elements mentioned in Sections 3 and 4, researchers have discovered many effective methods to improve the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides (Figure 5). Adding exogenous proteins is an efficiency strategy to improve the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides. A common method for constructing polysaccaride-protein complex is based on the charged groups of polysaccharides and proteins, such as amino, sulfate, carboxyl, and so forth (Zhao, et al., <span>2020</span>). These polymers possess varied ionization properties under different environmental conditions to form electrostatic complex. Furthermore, exogenous proteins could also be covalently linked with polysaccharides by using laccase, Maillard reaction, genipin crosslinking reaction, and so forth. (Ai, Meng, et al., <span>2022</span>; Ai, Zhao, et al., <span>2022</span>; Li & Karboune, <span>2021</span>). The covalent linkage between protein and polysaccharide is more stable than electrostatic bonding, but the degree of grafting is hard to control, and the grafting sites is random. As a result, the unpurified covalent complex usually contains free protein, free polysaccharide, and various covalent complex with different reaction degree. Thus, the electrostatic interaction between the free protein and polysaccharide should be considered when the covalent complex is used as emulsifier. Beside, previous studies have demonstrated that some phenolic acids, like ferulic acid, gallic acid, and quercetin, could be linked with polysaccharide by covalent bonding as hydrophobic anchor (Liu et al., <span>2020</span>). In addition, esterification of carboxyl groups on polysaccharides or acylation of hydroxyl groups of polysaccharides is also a good choice. For example, the emulsifying activity of chemically modified starch is closely related to esterification groups (Hadi, et al., <span>2020</span>). In conclusion, the improvement of the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides is usually based on the following aspects: firstly, the emulsifying activity of polysaccharide could be improved by increasing the number of hydrophobic anchors for enhancing the adsorption capacity of polysaccharides on the surface of oil droplets; secondly, the emulsifying stability of polysaccharides could be enhanced by increasing the molecular weight of polysaccharides for enhancing the steric hindrance among oil droplet; thirdly, the ionic and pH sensitivity of polysaccharides could be reduced by modifying the functional groups of polysaccharides.</p><p>The complicated components of food system lead to high requirements for the emulsifiers which are safety and can maintain good emulsifying properties during food processing. As potential natural emulsifiers, the amphiphilic polysaccharides are also met the challenges from food components and processing, such as the electrostatic interaction with salts and protein, the hydrogen bonding interaction with other polymers, the hydrophobic interaction with polyphenol, thermal denaturation by heating, and so forth. Although the general regulations of the effects of external factors on the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides have seemed to be already concluded certainly, the widely different molecular structure of polysaccharide from various resource which results in the wide variations of the emulsifying properties of polysaccharide. It means that if a novel amphiphilic polysaccharide which is proposed to use as food grade emulsifier, the physicochemical characteristics of this polysaccharide should be completely evaluated. Besides, the emulsifying properties changes of polysaccharides in food processing (thermal or non-thermal) and its molecular mechanism are rarely investigated. Therefore, it is undoubtedly an arduous and long-term task for develop nature polysaccharide as food grade emulsifiers. Currently, the emulsion systems which prepared using polysaccharide as emulsifier are applied in the delivery of bioactives for investigating its mechanism of protection, release, digestion, absorption, and transportation. It means that a complete upstream and downstream research system could be shaped in the structural characterization of polysaccharide, interfacial behavior of polysaccharide, delivery characteristics of the emulsion stabilized by polysaccharide, digestive characteristics, and the metabolism kinetics and the bioavailability of loaded bioactives. However, the correlations and change laws between two different links are still critical problems to be solved in current. After solving these problem, polysaccharides with specific properties (natural or modified) can be used for constructing the desired emulsion system which could deliver optimal amount of bioactives, and possess desired ability to protect the activity of loaded bioactives. Even more, it is possible to use a suitable polysaccharide as an emulsifier to construct a proper emulsion system, so that the encapsulated bioactives could be metabolized in human body as expected.</p>","PeriodicalId":11436,"journal":{"name":"eFood","volume":"4 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0000,"publicationDate":"2023-07-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/efd2.106","citationCount":"0","resultStr":"{\"title\":\"Recent advances on the emulsifying properties of dietary polysaccharides\",\"authors\":\"Chao Ai\",\"doi\":\"10.1002/efd2.106\",\"DOIUrl\":null,\"url\":null,\"abstract\":\"<p>Emulsion, a disperse system, generally consists of two immiscible liquids, where one of the liquids (dispersed phase) is dispersed as droplets in the other liquid (continuous phase). Taking emulsion as delivery system is a great strategy for enhancing the stability and bioavailability of bioactivity substances (Cao, et al., <span>2021</span>; Jagtiani, <span>2021</span>; Lu et al., <span>2016</span>). Thus, emulsion system is widely used in food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industry. In particular, to enhance the flavor and taste of food, emulsion is also used in some common foods, such as mayonnaise, cream, and material for three-dimensional food printing (Figure 1). Emulsifier plays a key role in the formation of emulsion system. The most common emulsifiers contain small molecule surfactant, natural amphiphilic macromolecule, solid particle, and auxiliary emulsifier (Amiri-Rigi et al., <span>2023</span>). Among them, amphiphilic polysaccharides, such as pectin, gum arabic, and galactomannans, are important members of the natural amphiphilic macromolecule, and have been utilized as food-grade emulsifiers (Feng, et al., <span>2023</span>; Niu, Hou, et al., <span>2022</span>). Compared with protein, the hydrated layer formed by polysaccharides possess relatively higher steric hindrance which improves the emulsion stability (Lin, et al., <span>2020</span>). Furthermore, the low digestibility of polysaccharide in digestive tract will result in delaying release rate of the bioactivities (Anal et al., <span>2019</span>). In view of the advantage and importance of amphiphilic polysaccharides, a growing number of studies focus on the discovery of natural polysaccharides which possess the ability to stabilize oil-water interface. As shown in Figure 2, the number of publications centered on “polysaccharide and emulsion” (Indexed by WOS) gradually increased since 2011 and rapidly increased in the last 3 years (from 2019 to 2021). This review highlights on recent advances in the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides, furtherly the structure–activity relationship, influencing factors, and improvement technologies.</p><p>The emulsifying properties of polysaccharides contain emulsifying activity and emulsifying stability. Emulsifying activity refers to the ability of polysaccharides to absorb on the oil-water interface and shape interfacial film. It presents as the droplet size of the emulsion stabilized by polysaccharides at critical concentration. In the case of emulsifying stability, it is reflected by the ability of interfacial film shaped by poysaccharides for preventing the aggregation of oil droplets and maintaining the uniform texture of emulsion during storage and process. The emulsifying properties of polysaccharides could be evaluated from several aspects as the followings.</p><p>The surface hydrophobicity index and interfacial tension are the most popular indirect indexes for forecasting the interfacial activity of polysaccharide (Chen, et al., <span>2019</span>; Ravera, et al., <span>2021</span>). Generally, the higher of the surface hydrophobicity index means the higher activity of polysaccharides to absorb onto the oil surface, and the lower interfacial tension indicates the higher ability of the polysaccharides to stabilize the oil−water interface. Besides, the turbidimetric method, containing the emulsifying activity index and emulsifying stability index, is a classic method for evaluating the emulsifying properties of polysaccharide methods (Yan et al., <span>2021</span>). The advantage of this method is easy to execute, but the defect of this method is fail to determine the oil droplet size and distribution which are the most important data for study the emulsion system. Fortunately, with the development of science and technology, the instruments based on the laser diffraction and dynamic light scattering technology could be used to observe the droplet size and distribution of the emulsion stabilized by polysaccharides (Lin, Guo, et al., <span>2020</span>; Lin, Yu, et al., <span>2020</span>; Zhang et al., <span>2021</span>). As a result, the droplet size and distribution of emulsion become the most popular and direct index to evaluate the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides. Furthermore, some optics and imaging technologies, such as optical microscope, transmission electron microscope, atomic force microscope, and confocal scanning laser microscope, could use to observe the microscopic morphology of droplets and calculate the droplets size by the corresponding ruler (Ai et al., <span>2019</span>; Ho et al., <span>2022</span>; Li et al., <span>2019</span>). Notably, microscopic morphology is an important evidence to distinguish the coalescence, aggregation, and flocculation of emulsion droplets, thereby studying the emulsifying stability of polysaccharides (Ai, Meng, et al., <span>2022</span>; Ai, Zhao, et al., <span>2022</span>).</p><p>Recently studies show that the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides could be influenced by several structural elements, including esterified group, molecular weight, protein moiety, phenolic acids, and charged groups (e.g., amino group, carboxyl group, and sulfate group) (Figure 3). Among the above structural elements, the esterified group, protein moiety, and phenolic acids are regarded as hydrophobic anchors which absorbed onto the oil surface, and play vital roles of the emulsifying activity of polysaccharides (Ai et al., <span>2020</span>). The molecular weight of polysaccharides is related to the viscosity and steric hindrance, which significantly influences the emulsion stability. Besides, the carboxyl group would provide electrostatic repulsion to reduce the close up of oil droplets and enhance the stability of emulsion system (Lin et al., <span>2021</span>). In particular, the molecular configuration of polysaccharides is a special factor. It would not influence the emulsifying properties directly, but influence the exposure of the hydrophobic groups of polysaccharides, thereby effecting the efficiency and difficulty of hydrophobic group absorbing to the oil surface, as a result, the emulsifying activity of the polysaccharides could be influenced (Ai, Meng, et al., <span>2022</span>; Ai, Zhao, et al., <span>2022</span>; Jiang et al., <span>2020</span>; Matsuyama, et al., <span>2021</span>). Furthermore, the molecular configuration of polysaccharides also influences the thickness of the interfacial film which contributes to the stability of the emulsion system (Lin, Guo, et al., <span>2020</span>; Lin, Yu, et al., <span>2020</span>).</p><p>The external elements for influencing the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides mainly includes oil phase content, oil type, polysaccharide usage, energy input, pH value, salts, temperature, gravity, and so forth (Figure 4). The oil phase content/type and polysaccharide usage mainly influence the adsorption density of the hydrophobic anchor on the interface, thereby effecting the droplet size (Du, et al., <span>2022</span>; Ma, et al., <span>2019</span>; Zhu, et al., <span>2019</span>). In addition, oil and polysaccharide are the main contributors of the viscosity of emulsion, which is highly related to the emulsion stability (Ai et al., <span>2019</span>; Shao, et al., <span>2020</span>). The most common energy input modes for the emulsion preparation include high speed shear, ultrasonic, high-pressure homogenization, and high-pressure microfluidization (Chen et al., <span>2018</span>). The different emulsion preparation methods would influence the efficiency of polysaccharides to absorb onto oil surface, what's more, some violent energy input mode, such as high-pressure and high power ultrasonic, would result in the change of molecule chain of polysaccharides (Benchamas et al., <span>2020</span>; Raoufi et al., <span>2019</span>). Generally, the efficiency order of the above energy input mode is: high-pressure microfluidization > high-pressure homogenization > ultrasonic > high speed shear. Notably, the ultrasonic method is not applicable in oil-water systems with high viscosity due to the poor transmission efficiency. The effect of pH on the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides is mainly acted on the charged group (Ai et al., <span>2019</span>; Xiong, et al., <span>2020</span>). Obviously, the ionization degree of charged group will result in the change of intramolecular or intermolecular force, thereby changing the molecular configuration. Therefore, the optimal emulsifying properties of polysaccharides should be performed in a suitable pH value. In the case of salts, it could screen the electrostatic charge of polysaccharides in aqueous solution to reduce the electrostatic repulsion (Xu et al., <span>2017</span>). Moreover, the multivalent cations ionized from salts, such as calcium, can shape as “calcium bridge” and electrostatically combine with multiple negatively charged polysaccharides, thus resulting in the aggregation of polysaccharides and changing the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides (Ai et al., <span>2020</span>). Besides, settling or floating will be emerged in emulsion system due to the effect of gravity (Niu, Wang, et al., <span>2022</span>). According to the “Stokes Law,” the settling or floating can be easier occurred in the emulsion system with high initial droplet size (Xu, et al., <span>2020</span>). It suggests that when the emulsifying activity is effected which results in the change of initial droplet size of emulsion, the emulsion stability will also be influenced.</p><p>Natural polysaccharides are hard to meet the requirement for preparing specific emulsion system for nutrition delivering. Based on the above external and structural elements mentioned in Sections 3 and 4, researchers have discovered many effective methods to improve the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides (Figure 5). Adding exogenous proteins is an efficiency strategy to improve the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides. A common method for constructing polysaccaride-protein complex is based on the charged groups of polysaccharides and proteins, such as amino, sulfate, carboxyl, and so forth (Zhao, et al., <span>2020</span>). These polymers possess varied ionization properties under different environmental conditions to form electrostatic complex. Furthermore, exogenous proteins could also be covalently linked with polysaccharides by using laccase, Maillard reaction, genipin crosslinking reaction, and so forth. (Ai, Meng, et al., <span>2022</span>; Ai, Zhao, et al., <span>2022</span>; Li & Karboune, <span>2021</span>). The covalent linkage between protein and polysaccharide is more stable than electrostatic bonding, but the degree of grafting is hard to control, and the grafting sites is random. As a result, the unpurified covalent complex usually contains free protein, free polysaccharide, and various covalent complex with different reaction degree. Thus, the electrostatic interaction between the free protein and polysaccharide should be considered when the covalent complex is used as emulsifier. Beside, previous studies have demonstrated that some phenolic acids, like ferulic acid, gallic acid, and quercetin, could be linked with polysaccharide by covalent bonding as hydrophobic anchor (Liu et al., <span>2020</span>). In addition, esterification of carboxyl groups on polysaccharides or acylation of hydroxyl groups of polysaccharides is also a good choice. For example, the emulsifying activity of chemically modified starch is closely related to esterification groups (Hadi, et al., <span>2020</span>). In conclusion, the improvement of the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides is usually based on the following aspects: firstly, the emulsifying activity of polysaccharide could be improved by increasing the number of hydrophobic anchors for enhancing the adsorption capacity of polysaccharides on the surface of oil droplets; secondly, the emulsifying stability of polysaccharides could be enhanced by increasing the molecular weight of polysaccharides for enhancing the steric hindrance among oil droplet; thirdly, the ionic and pH sensitivity of polysaccharides could be reduced by modifying the functional groups of polysaccharides.</p><p>The complicated components of food system lead to high requirements for the emulsifiers which are safety and can maintain good emulsifying properties during food processing. As potential natural emulsifiers, the amphiphilic polysaccharides are also met the challenges from food components and processing, such as the electrostatic interaction with salts and protein, the hydrogen bonding interaction with other polymers, the hydrophobic interaction with polyphenol, thermal denaturation by heating, and so forth. Although the general regulations of the effects of external factors on the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides have seemed to be already concluded certainly, the widely different molecular structure of polysaccharide from various resource which results in the wide variations of the emulsifying properties of polysaccharide. It means that if a novel amphiphilic polysaccharide which is proposed to use as food grade emulsifier, the physicochemical characteristics of this polysaccharide should be completely evaluated. Besides, the emulsifying properties changes of polysaccharides in food processing (thermal or non-thermal) and its molecular mechanism are rarely investigated. Therefore, it is undoubtedly an arduous and long-term task for develop nature polysaccharide as food grade emulsifiers. Currently, the emulsion systems which prepared using polysaccharide as emulsifier are applied in the delivery of bioactives for investigating its mechanism of protection, release, digestion, absorption, and transportation. It means that a complete upstream and downstream research system could be shaped in the structural characterization of polysaccharide, interfacial behavior of polysaccharide, delivery characteristics of the emulsion stabilized by polysaccharide, digestive characteristics, and the metabolism kinetics and the bioavailability of loaded bioactives. However, the correlations and change laws between two different links are still critical problems to be solved in current. After solving these problem, polysaccharides with specific properties (natural or modified) can be used for constructing the desired emulsion system which could deliver optimal amount of bioactives, and possess desired ability to protect the activity of loaded bioactives. Even more, it is possible to use a suitable polysaccharide as an emulsifier to construct a proper emulsion system, so that the encapsulated bioactives could be metabolized in human body as expected.</p>\",\"PeriodicalId\":11436,\"journal\":{\"name\":\"eFood\",\"volume\":\"4 4\",\"pages\":\"\"},\"PeriodicalIF\":4.0000,\"publicationDate\":\"2023-07-10\",\"publicationTypes\":\"Journal Article\",\"fieldsOfStudy\":null,\"isOpenAccess\":false,\"openAccessPdf\":\"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/efd2.106\",\"citationCount\":\"0\",\"resultStr\":null,\"platform\":\"Semanticscholar\",\"paperid\":null,\"PeriodicalName\":\"eFood\",\"FirstCategoryId\":\"1085\",\"ListUrlMain\":\"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/efd2.106\",\"RegionNum\":0,\"RegionCategory\":null,\"ArticlePicture\":[],\"TitleCN\":null,\"AbstractTextCN\":null,\"PMCID\":null,\"EPubDate\":\"\",\"PubModel\":\"\",\"JCR\":\"Q2\",\"JCRName\":\"FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY\",\"Score\":null,\"Total\":0}","platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":null,"PeriodicalName":"eFood","FirstCategoryId":"1085","ListUrlMain":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/efd2.106","RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":null,"ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":null,"EPubDate":"","PubModel":"","JCR":"Q2","JCRName":"FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY","Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
摘要
乳化液是一种分散体系,一般由两种不混溶的液体组成,其中一种液体(分散相)以液滴的形式分散在另一种液体(连续相)中。以乳剂作为给药系统是提高生物活性物质稳定性和生物利用度的重要策略(Cao等,2021;Jagtiani, 2021;Lu et al., 2016)。因此,乳化液体系在食品、医药、化妆品等行业有着广泛的应用。特别是为了增强食品的风味和口感,一些常见的食品中也会使用乳化剂,如蛋黄酱、奶油、三维食品印刷的材料(图1)。乳化剂在乳化剂体系的形成中起着关键作用。最常见的乳化剂包括小分子表面活性剂、天然两亲性大分子、固体颗粒和辅助乳化剂(Amiri-Rigi et al., 2023)。其中,果胶、阿拉伯胶、半乳甘露聚糖等两亲性多糖是天然两亲性大分子的重要成员,已被用作食品级乳化剂(Feng, et al., 2023;牛,侯,等,2022)。与蛋白质相比,多糖形成的水合层具有较高的位阻,提高了乳状液的稳定性(Lin, et al., 2020)。此外,多糖在消化道的消化率较低,会导致生物活性的释放速度延迟(Anal et al., 2019)。鉴于两亲性多糖的优势和重要性,越来越多的研究关注于发现具有稳定油水界面能力的天然多糖。如图2所示,以“多糖与乳化液”为中心(WOS索引)的出版物数量从2011年开始逐渐增加,并在最近3年(2019 - 2021年)快速增长。本文综述了近年来多糖乳化性能的研究进展,并对其构效关系、影响因素和改进技术进行了综述。多糖的乳化性质包括乳化活性和乳化稳定性。乳化活性是指多糖在油水界面上吸附和形成界面膜的能力。它表现为在临界浓度下由多糖稳定的乳液的液滴大小。乳化稳定性体现在多糖形成的界面膜在储存和加工过程中防止油滴聚集和保持乳液质地均匀的能力。多糖的乳化性能可从以下几个方面进行评价。表面疏水性指数和界面张力是预测多糖界面活性最常用的间接指标(Chen, et al., 2019;Ravera等人,2021)。一般来说,表面疏水性指数越高,表明多糖对油表面的吸附活性越强;界面张力越低,表明多糖稳定油水界面的能力越强。此外,浊度法含有乳化活性指数和乳化稳定性指数,是评价多糖方法乳化性能的经典方法(Yan et al., 2021)。该方法的优点是易于操作,但其缺点是无法确定油滴的大小和分布,而这是研究乳状液体系最重要的数据。幸运的是,随着科学技术的发展,基于激光衍射和动态光散射技术的仪器可以用来观察多糖稳定乳液的液滴大小和分布(Lin, Guo, et al., 2020;林宇等,2020;Zhang等人,2021)。因此,乳化液的液滴大小和分布成为评价多糖乳化性能最普遍和最直接的指标。此外,利用光学显微镜、透射电子显微镜、原子力显微镜、共聚焦扫描激光显微镜等光学成像技术,可以观察液滴的微观形态,并通过相应的尺子计算液滴的大小(Ai et al., 2019;Ho et al., 2022;Li等人,2019)。值得注意的是,微观形貌是区分乳化液液滴聚并、聚集和絮凝的重要依据,从而研究多糖的乳化稳定性(Ai, Meng, et al., 2022;赵艾等,2022)。最近的研究表明,多糖的乳化性能可能受到几个结构元素的影响,包括酯化基团、分子量、蛋白质部分、酚酸和带电基团(如氨基、羧基和硫酸盐基)(图3)。 在上述结构元素中,酯化基团、蛋白质部分和酚酸被视为疏水锚,它们被吸附在油表面,对多糖的乳化活性起着至关重要的作用(Ai et al., 2020)。多糖的分子量与粘度和位阻有关,对乳液的稳定性有重要影响。此外,羧基会产生静电斥力,减少油滴的紧密性,增强乳液体系的稳定性(Lin et al., 2021)。特别是,多糖的分子结构是一个特殊的因素。它不会直接影响乳化性能,但会影响多糖疏水基的暴露,从而影响疏水基吸附到油表面的效率和难度,从而影响多糖的乳化活性(Ai, Meng, et al., 2022;赵艾等,2022;Jiang et al., 2020;Matsuyama等人,2021)。此外,多糖的分子构型也会影响界面膜的厚度,从而有助于乳液体系的稳定性(Lin, Guo, et al., 2020;林,余,等,2020)。影响多糖乳化性能的外部因素主要包括油相含量、油类型、多糖用量、能量输入、pH值、盐类、温度、重力等(图4)。油相含量/类型和多糖用量主要影响疏水锚在界面上的吸附密度,从而影响液滴大小(Du, et al., 2022;Ma等人,2019;Zhu等人,2019)。此外,油和多糖是乳状液粘度的主要贡献者,与乳状液的稳定性高度相关(Ai et al., 2019;邵等,2020)。制备乳化液最常见的能量输入方式包括高速剪切、超声波、高压均质和高压微流化(Chen et al., 2018)。不同的乳液制备方法会影响多糖在油表面的吸附效率,并且一些剧烈的能量输入方式,如高压、高功率超声波,会导致多糖分子链的变化(Benchamas et al., 2020;Raoufi et al., 2019)。一般来说,上述能量输入方式的效率顺序为:高压微流化>高压均质化>超声波>高速剪切。值得注意的是,由于超声波方法的传输效率较差,因此不适用于高粘度的油水系统。pH对多糖乳化性能的影响主要作用于带电基团(Ai et al., 2019;熊等,2020)。显然,带电基团的电离程度会引起分子内或分子间作用力的变化,从而改变分子的构型。因此,多糖的最佳乳化性能应在合适的pH值下实现。在盐的情况下,它可以筛选水溶液中多糖的静电荷,以减少静电排斥(Xu et al., 2017)。此外,从盐中电离出来的多价阳离子,如钙,可以形成“钙桥”,并与多个带负电荷的多糖静电结合,从而导致多糖聚集,改变多糖的乳化特性(Ai et al., 2020)。此外,由于重力的作用,乳化液体系会出现沉淀或浮起(Niu, Wang, et al., 2022)。根据“Stokes定律”,初始液滴尺寸较大的乳液体系更容易发生沉淀或浮起(Xu, et al., 2020)。这表明,当乳化活性受到影响,导致乳状液初始液滴大小发生变化时,也会影响乳状液的稳定性。天然多糖难以满足制备营养输送专用乳化液体系的要求。基于上述第3节和第4节中提到的外部和结构因素,研究人员发现了许多改善多糖乳化性能的有效方法(图5)。添加外源蛋白是改善多糖乳化性能的有效策略。构建多糖-蛋白质复合物的常用方法是基于多糖和蛋白质的带电基团,如氨基、硫酸盐、羧基等(Zhao, et al., 2020)。这些聚合物在不同的环境条件下具有不同的电离特性,形成静电络合物。此外,外源蛋白还可以通过漆酶、美拉德反应、吉尼平交联反应等与多糖共价连接。 (艾,孟等,2022;赵艾等,2022;李,Karboune, 2021)。蛋白质与多糖之间的共价键比静电键更稳定,但接枝程度难以控制,且接枝位点随机。因此,未纯化的共价复合物通常含有游离蛋白、游离多糖和各种不同反应程度的共价复合物。因此,在使用共价配合物作为乳化剂时,应考虑游离蛋白与多糖之间的静电相互作用。此外,已有研究表明,阿魏酸、没食子酸、槲皮素等酚酸可以作为疏水锚与多糖共价键结合(Liu et al., 2020)。此外,多糖羧基的酯化或多糖羟基的酰化也是一个不错的选择。例如,化学改性淀粉的乳化活性与酯化基团密切相关(Hadi, et al., 2020)。综上所述,多糖乳化性能的改善通常基于以下几个方面:首先,通过增加疏水锚点的数量来提高多糖在油滴表面的吸附能力,可以提高多糖的乳化活性;其次,通过增加多糖的分子量来提高油滴间的位阻,可以提高多糖的乳化稳定性;第三,通过修饰多糖的官能团,可以降低多糖的离子敏感性和pH敏感性。食品体系的复杂组成对乳化剂提出了很高的要求,乳化剂在食品加工过程中既要安全又要保持良好的乳化性能。作为潜在的天然乳化剂,两亲性多糖也面临着来自食品成分和加工的挑战,如与盐和蛋白质的静电相互作用、与其他聚合物的氢键相互作用、与多酚的疏水相互作用、加热热变性等。虽然外界因素对多糖乳化性能影响的一般规律似乎已经确定,但由于各种来源的多糖分子结构差异很大,导致多糖的乳化性能差异很大。这意味着,如果提出一种新的两亲性多糖作为食品级乳化剂,必须对该多糖的理化特性进行全面的评价。此外,多糖在食品加工过程中(热加工和非热加工)乳化特性的变化及其分子机理研究较少。因此,开发天然多糖作为食品级乳化剂无疑是一项艰巨而长期的任务。目前,以多糖为乳化剂制备的乳状体系被应用于生物活性物质的递送,研究其保护、释放、消化、吸收和运输的机制。这意味着可以在多糖的结构表征、多糖的界面行为、多糖稳定乳状液的传递特性、消化特性以及负载生物活性物质的代谢动力学和生物利用度等方面形成完整的上下游研究体系。然而,两个不同环节之间的相互关系和变化规律仍然是当前亟待解决的问题。在解决了这些问题之后,具有特定性质的多糖(天然的或改性的)可以用于构建所需的乳液体系,该乳液体系可以提供最佳量的生物活性,并具有理想的保护负载生物活性的能力。更有可能的是,使用合适的多糖作为乳化剂,构建合适的乳状体系,使包被的生物活性物质在人体内如期代谢。
Recent advances on the emulsifying properties of dietary polysaccharides
Emulsion, a disperse system, generally consists of two immiscible liquids, where one of the liquids (dispersed phase) is dispersed as droplets in the other liquid (continuous phase). Taking emulsion as delivery system is a great strategy for enhancing the stability and bioavailability of bioactivity substances (Cao, et al., 2021; Jagtiani, 2021; Lu et al., 2016). Thus, emulsion system is widely used in food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industry. In particular, to enhance the flavor and taste of food, emulsion is also used in some common foods, such as mayonnaise, cream, and material for three-dimensional food printing (Figure 1). Emulsifier plays a key role in the formation of emulsion system. The most common emulsifiers contain small molecule surfactant, natural amphiphilic macromolecule, solid particle, and auxiliary emulsifier (Amiri-Rigi et al., 2023). Among them, amphiphilic polysaccharides, such as pectin, gum arabic, and galactomannans, are important members of the natural amphiphilic macromolecule, and have been utilized as food-grade emulsifiers (Feng, et al., 2023; Niu, Hou, et al., 2022). Compared with protein, the hydrated layer formed by polysaccharides possess relatively higher steric hindrance which improves the emulsion stability (Lin, et al., 2020). Furthermore, the low digestibility of polysaccharide in digestive tract will result in delaying release rate of the bioactivities (Anal et al., 2019). In view of the advantage and importance of amphiphilic polysaccharides, a growing number of studies focus on the discovery of natural polysaccharides which possess the ability to stabilize oil-water interface. As shown in Figure 2, the number of publications centered on “polysaccharide and emulsion” (Indexed by WOS) gradually increased since 2011 and rapidly increased in the last 3 years (from 2019 to 2021). This review highlights on recent advances in the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides, furtherly the structure–activity relationship, influencing factors, and improvement technologies.
The emulsifying properties of polysaccharides contain emulsifying activity and emulsifying stability. Emulsifying activity refers to the ability of polysaccharides to absorb on the oil-water interface and shape interfacial film. It presents as the droplet size of the emulsion stabilized by polysaccharides at critical concentration. In the case of emulsifying stability, it is reflected by the ability of interfacial film shaped by poysaccharides for preventing the aggregation of oil droplets and maintaining the uniform texture of emulsion during storage and process. The emulsifying properties of polysaccharides could be evaluated from several aspects as the followings.
The surface hydrophobicity index and interfacial tension are the most popular indirect indexes for forecasting the interfacial activity of polysaccharide (Chen, et al., 2019; Ravera, et al., 2021). Generally, the higher of the surface hydrophobicity index means the higher activity of polysaccharides to absorb onto the oil surface, and the lower interfacial tension indicates the higher ability of the polysaccharides to stabilize the oil−water interface. Besides, the turbidimetric method, containing the emulsifying activity index and emulsifying stability index, is a classic method for evaluating the emulsifying properties of polysaccharide methods (Yan et al., 2021). The advantage of this method is easy to execute, but the defect of this method is fail to determine the oil droplet size and distribution which are the most important data for study the emulsion system. Fortunately, with the development of science and technology, the instruments based on the laser diffraction and dynamic light scattering technology could be used to observe the droplet size and distribution of the emulsion stabilized by polysaccharides (Lin, Guo, et al., 2020; Lin, Yu, et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2021). As a result, the droplet size and distribution of emulsion become the most popular and direct index to evaluate the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides. Furthermore, some optics and imaging technologies, such as optical microscope, transmission electron microscope, atomic force microscope, and confocal scanning laser microscope, could use to observe the microscopic morphology of droplets and calculate the droplets size by the corresponding ruler (Ai et al., 2019; Ho et al., 2022; Li et al., 2019). Notably, microscopic morphology is an important evidence to distinguish the coalescence, aggregation, and flocculation of emulsion droplets, thereby studying the emulsifying stability of polysaccharides (Ai, Meng, et al., 2022; Ai, Zhao, et al., 2022).
Recently studies show that the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides could be influenced by several structural elements, including esterified group, molecular weight, protein moiety, phenolic acids, and charged groups (e.g., amino group, carboxyl group, and sulfate group) (Figure 3). Among the above structural elements, the esterified group, protein moiety, and phenolic acids are regarded as hydrophobic anchors which absorbed onto the oil surface, and play vital roles of the emulsifying activity of polysaccharides (Ai et al., 2020). The molecular weight of polysaccharides is related to the viscosity and steric hindrance, which significantly influences the emulsion stability. Besides, the carboxyl group would provide electrostatic repulsion to reduce the close up of oil droplets and enhance the stability of emulsion system (Lin et al., 2021). In particular, the molecular configuration of polysaccharides is a special factor. It would not influence the emulsifying properties directly, but influence the exposure of the hydrophobic groups of polysaccharides, thereby effecting the efficiency and difficulty of hydrophobic group absorbing to the oil surface, as a result, the emulsifying activity of the polysaccharides could be influenced (Ai, Meng, et al., 2022; Ai, Zhao, et al., 2022; Jiang et al., 2020; Matsuyama, et al., 2021). Furthermore, the molecular configuration of polysaccharides also influences the thickness of the interfacial film which contributes to the stability of the emulsion system (Lin, Guo, et al., 2020; Lin, Yu, et al., 2020).
The external elements for influencing the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides mainly includes oil phase content, oil type, polysaccharide usage, energy input, pH value, salts, temperature, gravity, and so forth (Figure 4). The oil phase content/type and polysaccharide usage mainly influence the adsorption density of the hydrophobic anchor on the interface, thereby effecting the droplet size (Du, et al., 2022; Ma, et al., 2019; Zhu, et al., 2019). In addition, oil and polysaccharide are the main contributors of the viscosity of emulsion, which is highly related to the emulsion stability (Ai et al., 2019; Shao, et al., 2020). The most common energy input modes for the emulsion preparation include high speed shear, ultrasonic, high-pressure homogenization, and high-pressure microfluidization (Chen et al., 2018). The different emulsion preparation methods would influence the efficiency of polysaccharides to absorb onto oil surface, what's more, some violent energy input mode, such as high-pressure and high power ultrasonic, would result in the change of molecule chain of polysaccharides (Benchamas et al., 2020; Raoufi et al., 2019). Generally, the efficiency order of the above energy input mode is: high-pressure microfluidization > high-pressure homogenization > ultrasonic > high speed shear. Notably, the ultrasonic method is not applicable in oil-water systems with high viscosity due to the poor transmission efficiency. The effect of pH on the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides is mainly acted on the charged group (Ai et al., 2019; Xiong, et al., 2020). Obviously, the ionization degree of charged group will result in the change of intramolecular or intermolecular force, thereby changing the molecular configuration. Therefore, the optimal emulsifying properties of polysaccharides should be performed in a suitable pH value. In the case of salts, it could screen the electrostatic charge of polysaccharides in aqueous solution to reduce the electrostatic repulsion (Xu et al., 2017). Moreover, the multivalent cations ionized from salts, such as calcium, can shape as “calcium bridge” and electrostatically combine with multiple negatively charged polysaccharides, thus resulting in the aggregation of polysaccharides and changing the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides (Ai et al., 2020). Besides, settling or floating will be emerged in emulsion system due to the effect of gravity (Niu, Wang, et al., 2022). According to the “Stokes Law,” the settling or floating can be easier occurred in the emulsion system with high initial droplet size (Xu, et al., 2020). It suggests that when the emulsifying activity is effected which results in the change of initial droplet size of emulsion, the emulsion stability will also be influenced.
Natural polysaccharides are hard to meet the requirement for preparing specific emulsion system for nutrition delivering. Based on the above external and structural elements mentioned in Sections 3 and 4, researchers have discovered many effective methods to improve the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides (Figure 5). Adding exogenous proteins is an efficiency strategy to improve the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides. A common method for constructing polysaccaride-protein complex is based on the charged groups of polysaccharides and proteins, such as amino, sulfate, carboxyl, and so forth (Zhao, et al., 2020). These polymers possess varied ionization properties under different environmental conditions to form electrostatic complex. Furthermore, exogenous proteins could also be covalently linked with polysaccharides by using laccase, Maillard reaction, genipin crosslinking reaction, and so forth. (Ai, Meng, et al., 2022; Ai, Zhao, et al., 2022; Li & Karboune, 2021). The covalent linkage between protein and polysaccharide is more stable than electrostatic bonding, but the degree of grafting is hard to control, and the grafting sites is random. As a result, the unpurified covalent complex usually contains free protein, free polysaccharide, and various covalent complex with different reaction degree. Thus, the electrostatic interaction between the free protein and polysaccharide should be considered when the covalent complex is used as emulsifier. Beside, previous studies have demonstrated that some phenolic acids, like ferulic acid, gallic acid, and quercetin, could be linked with polysaccharide by covalent bonding as hydrophobic anchor (Liu et al., 2020). In addition, esterification of carboxyl groups on polysaccharides or acylation of hydroxyl groups of polysaccharides is also a good choice. For example, the emulsifying activity of chemically modified starch is closely related to esterification groups (Hadi, et al., 2020). In conclusion, the improvement of the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides is usually based on the following aspects: firstly, the emulsifying activity of polysaccharide could be improved by increasing the number of hydrophobic anchors for enhancing the adsorption capacity of polysaccharides on the surface of oil droplets; secondly, the emulsifying stability of polysaccharides could be enhanced by increasing the molecular weight of polysaccharides for enhancing the steric hindrance among oil droplet; thirdly, the ionic and pH sensitivity of polysaccharides could be reduced by modifying the functional groups of polysaccharides.
The complicated components of food system lead to high requirements for the emulsifiers which are safety and can maintain good emulsifying properties during food processing. As potential natural emulsifiers, the amphiphilic polysaccharides are also met the challenges from food components and processing, such as the electrostatic interaction with salts and protein, the hydrogen bonding interaction with other polymers, the hydrophobic interaction with polyphenol, thermal denaturation by heating, and so forth. Although the general regulations of the effects of external factors on the emulsifying properties of polysaccharides have seemed to be already concluded certainly, the widely different molecular structure of polysaccharide from various resource which results in the wide variations of the emulsifying properties of polysaccharide. It means that if a novel amphiphilic polysaccharide which is proposed to use as food grade emulsifier, the physicochemical characteristics of this polysaccharide should be completely evaluated. Besides, the emulsifying properties changes of polysaccharides in food processing (thermal or non-thermal) and its molecular mechanism are rarely investigated. Therefore, it is undoubtedly an arduous and long-term task for develop nature polysaccharide as food grade emulsifiers. Currently, the emulsion systems which prepared using polysaccharide as emulsifier are applied in the delivery of bioactives for investigating its mechanism of protection, release, digestion, absorption, and transportation. It means that a complete upstream and downstream research system could be shaped in the structural characterization of polysaccharide, interfacial behavior of polysaccharide, delivery characteristics of the emulsion stabilized by polysaccharide, digestive characteristics, and the metabolism kinetics and the bioavailability of loaded bioactives. However, the correlations and change laws between two different links are still critical problems to be solved in current. After solving these problem, polysaccharides with specific properties (natural or modified) can be used for constructing the desired emulsion system which could deliver optimal amount of bioactives, and possess desired ability to protect the activity of loaded bioactives. Even more, it is possible to use a suitable polysaccharide as an emulsifier to construct a proper emulsion system, so that the encapsulated bioactives could be metabolized in human body as expected.
期刊介绍:
eFood is the official journal of the International Association of Dietetic Nutrition and Safety (IADNS) which eFood aims to cover all aspects of food science and technology. The journal’s mission is to advance and disseminate knowledge of food science, and to promote and foster research into the chemistry, nutrition and safety of food worldwide, by supporting open dissemination and lively discourse about a wide range of the most important topics in global food and health.
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