Renewable-fuelled plant factories ensure large-scale food supply but require low-carbon transition for environmental gains.

Renewable-fuelled plant factories (RFPFs) offer great promise for resilient food production, yet assessing their supply potential and environmental impacts is crucial for wider adoption. Here we conduct a multidimensional geospatial analysis to devise RFPF deployment schemes that aim to meet the population's dietary vegetable demand in China's 369 city-level regions. Results indicate that RFPFs provide multifaceted benefits, particularly in a cross-city scenario that ensures a sufficient supply for all regions, saves 51,390 km2 of cropland and maintains an affordable cost at 5.88 Chinese Yuan kg-1. Nevertheless, compared with conventional methods, RFPFs increase greenhouse gas emissions by 1.99-2.55-fold, with the majority being embodied in the manufacturing of power modules and facilities. Adopting a low-carbon transition pathway mitigates these emissions by approximately 70%, enabling RFPFs to achieve environmental gains. These results show the potential of RFPFs to innovate food production systems while underscoring low-carbon transition as a condition for their large-scale implementation.