Climate Change and AMR: Interconnected Threats and One Health Solutions.

Climate change is a significant driver of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and infectious disease dynamics, presenting urgent and interconnected global health challenges. Rising temperatures, ecosystem alterations, and extreme weather events amplify the global spread of resistant pathogens, zoonotic infections, and vector-borne diseases. These impacts disproportionately affect low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), escalating healthcare costs and straining limited infrastructure. A critical characteristic of bacterial resistance is that it often does not incur a fitness cost, underscoring the necessity of preventive strategies to mitigate climate-driven AMR emergence, rather than relying on reactive treatments after resistance is established. Climate change accelerates AMR primarily by increasing the prevalence of infectious diseases, which in turn drive higher antibiotic use and select resistance. The socioeconomic consequences are particularly severe in LMICs, where high climate vulnerability converges with weaker health systems. Pandemic-related disruptions provided key insights into environmental dynamics, with notable temporary reductions in nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) emissions, i.e., 20-30% in China, Italy, France, and Spain, and approximately 30% in the USA, which highlights the responsiveness of ecosystems to human activity. Unlike prior reviews that treated AMR and climate change as separate issues, this article integrates mechanistic evidence, epidemiological insights, and global strategies to provide a comprehensive One Health framework addressing these synergistic threats. We conclude that AMR and climate change are interlinked crises requiring urgent, integrated interventions. The quadripartite (FAO, UNEP, WHO, WOAH) provides a crucial framework for the coordinated cross-sectoral strategies, strengthened surveillance, and robust antibiotic stewardship required to mitigate this dual threat and safeguard global health security.