Biological roles of pyrazines in insect chemical communication

Pyrazines, a widespread class of nitrogen-containing heterocyclic volatiles, are crucial semiochemicals in insect ecology, orchestrating behaviors ranging from alarm signaling and aposematism to aggregation and mate recognition. Despite their recognized importance, significant knowledge gaps persist. The detailed enzymatic pathways for pyrazine biosynthesis—both in insects and their microbial symbionts—remain largely uncharacterized. Furthermore, the precise molecular machinery of pyrazine perception, including the specific olfactory receptors and downstream neural processing, is still not fully understood. To bridge these knowledge gaps, this review consolidates the current understanding of the chemical diversity of pyrazines utilized by insects and delves into their complex biosynthetic origins, covering both de novo insect synthesis and contributions from associated micro-organisms. We explore their varied functional roles in mediating critical insect behaviors and discuss the analytical methodologies used for their study. By outlining these unresolved areas and summarizing the state of the field, this review emphasizes the necessity for integrated investigations to fully elucidate the multifaceted roles of pyrazines. Such comprehensive knowledge is essential for advancing insect biology and for strategically harnessing these compounds in novel, sustainable pest management technologies.

Graphical abstract

Functional diversity of pyrazine compounds in chemical communication