Food safety in the shadows: Understanding dark kitchens through the lens of necessity entrepreneurship and activity theory

This study integrates the concepts of necessity entrepreneurship and activity theory (AT) to systematically examine the food safety landscape of dark kitchens—delivery-only food businesses. The mixed-method approach adopted included in-depth site visits, food safety inspections, and nationwide surveys of consumers (n = 441) and environmental health officers (n = 443). The qualitative analysis of 21 dark kitchens revealed highly diverse operator profiles, with some entrepreneurs operating out of necessity and others capitalising on market opportunities. Quantitative data was analysed through confirmatory factor analysis and mean comparisons. Most necessity-driven dark kitchens, particularly those operating from home, demonstrated limited knowledge of food safety, informal practices, and resource constraints; they prioritised personal moral standards of food safety over regulatory compliance. Conversely, opportunity-oriented entrepreneurs were more likely to align food safety with organisational objectives and had a more appropriate infrastructure in place. Compliance with food safety documentation was the lowest of all the dimensions assessed (9.5 %), followed by employee hygiene, technical responsibility (27.5 %), and facilities (49.8 %). Structural and behavioural weaknesses were exacerbated by unclear regulations, difficulties in enforcement, and low engagement with inspection authorities. As per the surveys, consumers expect food delivery systems to guarantee minimum hygiene standards. The environmental health officers highlighted the challenges of inspecting and monitoring dark kitchens, particularly considering the sector's informality and digital fragmentation. Synthesising the findings using the AT framework shows that the production of safe food (objects) is affected by interconnected contradictions between subjects and all other elements, especially in models dominated by necessity entrepreneurs. This study provides evidence for targeted policy interventions and platform-based initiatives to improve food safety in emerging food service models.