Factorial and Cultural Validity of a Social and Emotional Behavior Measure in Northern Ghana.

In a large sample of children in northern Ghana (N = 4,723), we investigated the factorial validity and reliability of the widely used parent-report Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated poor fit for the proposed 5-factor model. Using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, we found a reliable and empirically sound 3-factor solution. The first factor reflected self-regulatory and prosocial behaviors, a factor we termed "responsibility" to align with skills valued in the Ghanaian context. The second and third factors represented internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors, respectively. Multiple-group confirmatory factor analyses suggested measurement invariance across gender and age. While evidence of convergent and discriminant validity was mixed, associations with child and household characteristics offer new insights into child development in an understudied context. This study contributes to a conversation around the importance of applying socio-cultural understanding to conceptualizing and measuring social and emotional behaviors across diverse contexts.