Fortification of coffee with iron compounds to enhance its micronutrient profile

This study evaluated the various iron forms, ferrous sulfate (FS), ferrous gluconate (FG), ferric sodium EDTA (FSE), ferric pyrophosphate (FPP), ferrous fumarate (FF), ferrous bis-glycinate (FB), and electrolytic iron (EI) for fortifying Arabica coffee. FSE-fortified coffee (FC) exhibited the highest solubility and stability, with an iron recovery of 4.702 mg per 100 mL, followed by FB-FC (3.681 mg), FS-FC (3.345 mg), and FG-FC (3.435 mg). ATR-FTIR confirmed minimal interaction between FSE and coffee polyphenols, ensuring high retention and low complexation (<1.0 mmol FeCl₃/TAE). Sensory analysis linked FSE-FC to desirable aroma, flavor, and mouthfeel, whereas EI-FC and FF-FC exhibited off-flavors. GC–MS profile indicated a minimal impact on key volatile compounds. These findings confirm that FSE, followed by FB, FS, and FG, are the most effective iron fortificants for coffee while preserving sensory and physicochemical properties, thereby enhancing coffee as a functional food that promotes better public health.