Geochemical Speciation, Uptake, and Transportation Mechanisms of Arsenic, Cadmium, and Lead in Soil-Rice Systems: Additional Aspects and Challenges.

Potentially toxic elements (PTE), such as cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and arsenic (As), threaten rice (Oryza sativa L.) crop productivity and pose significant risks to human health when they are present in soil. This review summarizes the current understanding of soil and rice contamination with As, Cd, and Pb to provide an in-depth understanding of the dynamics of these contaminants and the mechanisms regulating their flow from soil to plants. It focuses on the following aspects: (1) these metals' geochemical distribution and speciation in soil-rice systems; (2) factors influencing the transformation, bioavailability, and uptake of these metals in paddy soils; (3) metal uptake, transport, translocation, and accumulation mechanisms in rice grains; and (4) the roles of transporters involved in metal uptake, transport, and accumulation in rice plants. Moreover, this review contributes to a clearer understanding of the environmental risks associated with these toxic metals in soil-rice ecosystems. Furthermore, it highlights the challenges in simultaneously managing the risks of As, Cd, and Pb contamination in rice. The study findings may help inspire innovative methods, biotechnological applications, and sustainable management strategies to mitigate the accumulation of As, Cd, and Pb in rice grains while effectively addressing multi-metal contamination in paddy soils.