Pesticide residues in Egyptian vegetables: A comprehensive analysis of compliance, co-occurrence of multiple residues, and health risk assessment

The present study investigated the occurrence of 430 pesticide residues in 6534 samples representing eight commonly consumed vegetables (potatoes, onions, broccoli, garlic, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, carrots, and sweet peppers) collected from Egyptian markets in 2022. The results revealed that garlic and sweet potatoes exhibited the highest percentage of samples with no detectable residues at 88.76 % and 86.75 %, respectively, while potatoes and peppers had the lowest at 24.69 % and 33.65 %. Most samples either contained no detectable residues or complied with the established Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs). However, tomatoes had the highest MRL exceedance rate at 4.96 %, followed by carrots (3.85 %) and peppers (2.88 %). The most frequently detected pesticides across the vegetables were difenoconazole, chlorpyrifos, imidacloprid, chlorpropham, azoxystrobin, boscalid, acetamiprid, clothianidin, metalaxyl, and carbendazim. The detection of banned pesticides, such as chlorpropham in potatoes (40.09 %), chlorpyrifos in carrots (34.62 %), and carbendazim in onions (10.12 %), was a substantial concern. Potatoes and peppers also had the highest prevalence of multiple residues, with 49.03 % and 47.60 % of samples, respectively, while garlic, sweet potatoes, and onions had the lowest, ranging from 2.96 % to 9.75 %. Multiple pesticide residues were found co-occurring on several vegetables, with fungicide-insecticide combinations being the most prevalent. All pesticide residues in Egyptian vegetables were well below safety thresholds, with chlorpropham showing the highest Hazard Index at only 10 % of its Acceptable Daily Intake. These findings highlight the need for continuous monitoring, stricter regulatory enforcement, targeted interventions, promotion of integrated pest management strategies, and farmer education to minimize risks associated with pesticide exposure.