Improving executive function during toddlerhood: A systematic review and meta-analysis of parent-led interventions

Individual differences in executive functions are detectable in the first year of life and continue to develop throughout the preschool years. Psychological science suggests that executive function is malleable, with parents playing a crucial role as potential agents of change. However, the effectiveness of interventions aimed at teaching parents how to enhance their children’s executive function during the preschool years remains unclear. To address this gap, we pre-registered a systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature on parent/caregiver-led interventions designed to foster children’s executive function from ages 2 to 5 years. We conducted an extensive search across 12 databases spanning disciplines such as developmental psychology, education, and policy. After screening over 11,000 papers, 12 studies met our inclusion criteria. These interventions included home visits, in-person group sessions for parents/caregivers, or a combination of both. Our meta-analysis, which included 8 studies with a total of 1,815 participants − 946 in the treatment group and 869 in the control group − revealed no statistically significant difference between the treatment and control groups overall. A follow-up analysis of two studies using the same outcome measure for Effortful Control showed a small to moderate positive effect that was statistically significant [SMD = 0.28, 95 % CI (0.08, 0.47)]. We provide recommendations for improving the evidence base in this area, emphasising the need for more rigorous and standardised methodologies in future research. This review underscores the potential of parents as key facilitators in the development of their children’s executive functions and highlights promising directions for future interventions.