Analysis of the liver–gut axis including metabolomics and intestinal flora to determine the protective effects of kiwifruit seed oil on CCl4-induced acute liver injury

The hepatoprotective effects of kiwifruit seed oil (KSO) were evaluated on acute liver injury (ALI) induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) in vivo. Network pharmacology was used to predict active compounds and targets. Metabolomics and gut microbiota analyses were used to discover the activity mechanism of KSO. KSO improved the liver histological structure, significantly reduced serum proinflammatory cytokine levels, and increased liver antioxidant capacity. The metabolomics analysis showed that KSO may have hepatoprotective effects by controlling metabolites through its participation in signaling pathways like tryptophan metabolism, glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, galactose metabolism, and bile secretion. The gut microbiota analysis demonstrated that KSO improved the composition and quantity of the gut flora. Network pharmacological investigations demonstrated that KSO operated by altering Ptgs2, Nos2, Ppara, Pparg and Serpine1 mRNA levels. All evidence shows that KSO has a hepatoprotective effect, and the mechanism is connected to the regulation of metabolic disorders and intestinal flora.