No access? No problem! Taking stock of unobtrusive measures for executives’ deep-level characteristics

The deep-level characteristics (e.g., personality, ability, values) of leaders have previously been found to influence key outcomes for followers, organizations, and more. However, many widely used measures of these deep-level characteristics (e.g., self-reported Likert scales) cannot be implemented when studying high-ranking leaders due to a lack of direct access to those types of leaders. In light of this challenge, scholars have developed indirect, unobtrusive measures to capture these deep-level characteristics. In this review, we examine the four overarching approaches prior scholars have used to indirectly measure leaders’ deep-level characteristics—language, visual media, financials, and personal factors—and discuss the strengths and weaknesses of each approach. Based on the patterns found, we also suggest avenues for future research.