Understanding Smallholder Farmers' Perceptions and Adoption Levels of Conservation Agriculture in the Climate Change Vulnerable North-Eastern Regions of Namibia

Abstract

Conservation agriculture (CA) has gained policy relevance across Africa as a climate-smart approach aligned with continental commitments under the Malabo Declaration and the subsequent Kampala CAADP agenda to promote sustainable agricultural transformation and resilient agrifood systems. However, its adoption remains uneven in semiarid farming systems, including north-eastern Namibia. This study assessed farmers' perceptions, adoption levels, and factors associated with CA adoption in the Kavango East and Zambezi regions of Namibia. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among smallholder farmers previously exposed to CA interventions. Of the 83 eligible farmers identified, 66 were interviewed, and 41 complete questionnaires were included in the final analysis. Minimum tillage was the most widely adopted CA practice (95.1%), followed by crop rotation (70.7%) and mulching (65.9%). Based on an integrated definition requiring the application of all three CA principles, 61.0% of respondents were classified as adopters. Integrated CA adoption was higher in Kavango East (94.7%) than in Zambezi (31.8%). Binary logistic regression showed that region was significantly associated with adoption, with farmers in Kavango East having approximately four times greater odds of adopting integrated CA than those in Zambezi (OR = 4.31, 95% CI: 1.47–12.62, p = 0.008). Labor requirements (75.6%) and limited access to equipment (53.7%) were the most frequently reported constraints. The findings underscore the need for region-specific CA interventions that reduce labor demands and improve access to appropriate equipment and production inputs.