Cash, code, and congestion: A case study on MaaS adoption barriers and policy implications in Hanoi

Abstract

Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) is emerging as a paradigm-shifting solution for urban transportation, yet its research and implementation have been largely confined to developed countries. A significant knowledge gap exists regarding its viability in the unique context of developing nations, which are often characterized by fragmented transport systems, cash-dominant economies, and severe traffic congestion. This study addresses this gap by investigating the factors influencing MaaS adoption willingness among university students in Hanoi, Vietnam, a city that epitomizes these challenges. We frame our analysis through a “cash, code, and congestion” lens to dissect the structural and behavioral barriers to adoption. Employing a survey-based methodology with 372 student respondents, this research utilizes Classification and Regression Trees (CART) to develop predictive models for two distinct user segments: private vehicle users and public/shared transport users. The models identify the key determinants of adoption and reveal the detailed decision-making profiles of each group. Our findings reveal a strong latent demand for MaaS, but uncover fundamentally divergent adoption logics between the two segments. For private vehicle users, adoption is primarily driven by their existing digital habits with ride-hailing apps, with financial considerations acting as a secondary factor. Conversely, for public/shared transport users, the practical utility of their daily journey, particularly commute distance, is the most critical predictor. The results underscore that a one-size-fits-all MaaS strategy is unviable. As a conclusion, this study provides empirical evidence for segment-specific pathways to MaaS adoption in a developing country context. We propose that successful MaaS implementation in a Vietnamese context such as Hanoi requires targeted value propositions: focusing on cost-efficiency and superior convenience to attract private users, while emphasizing operational reliability and functional optimization for public transport users. These strategies must be coupled with systemic solutions to overcome the “cash, code, and congestion” barriers, ultimately positioning MaaS as a key enabler of sustainable urban mobility.