Effects of apple form on satiety in 4–6 year-old children: possible evidence of sex differences

Abstract

Research in adults has shown that food form (e.g., liquid, semi-solid, solid) influences satiety, even when energy and energy density are matched. However, less is known about the impact of food form on satiety in children. We examined the influence of food form on children's subsequent meal intake. Children (n = 64, F = 32; mean age 5.9 years-old) completed a crossover study with 5 laboratory visits, each ∼1 week apart. During each visit, children were presented with no preload (control) or one of 4 apple preloads: slices, purée, juice, or juice sweetened with non-nutritive sweetener. Apple slices, purée, and juice were matched for energy and energy density. Visual cues were masked and eating rate was controlled. The order of conditions was pseudorandomized and counterbalanced. Following the preload, children ate ad libitum from a standardized meal and satiety was calculated as the % of energy intake at the preload + meal relative to intake at the no preload condition (100 % = perfect compensation). Food form did not influence satiety. Satiety was 112 %, 121 %, and 120 % for apple slices, purée, and juice, respectively (p > 0.05). Results, however, varied by sex: boys showed near perfect (99 %) compensation for apple slices (p < 0.01), while it was 125 % in girls. Compared to the control condition, satiety in boys was better (i.e., closer to 100 %) than in girls (p < 0.05). Thus, when visual cues were masked and consumption rate controlled, solid fruit and fruit juice had similar effects on satiety, but across fruit forms, boys showed better satiety than girls. These findings suggest that factors that influence satiety differ by child sex; we posit that satiety in girls may be driven more by social/learned cues while boys respond to biological signals.