Photobiology, photosynthesis, and plant responses under artificial lighting in controlled environment agriculture

Abstract

Light-emitting diode (LED) technology enables precise spectral control in controlled environment agriculture (CEA), enhancing crop productivity, quality, and energy efficiency. As LED systems gain prominence in greenhouses and vertical farms, a deeper understanding of plant responses to light spectrum, intensity, and photoperiod is critical. This review synthesizes current findings on plant photobiology and photosynthesis under artificial lighting, focusing on how ultraviolet (UV), blue, green, red, and far-red wavelengths influence physiological processes, biomass accumulation, and stress adaptation. We examine key challenges, including red-light syndrome, blue light-induced oxidative stress, and spectral imbalance, while exploring strategies for dynamic light management. The effects of photoperiod manipulation and circadian disruption are also addressed, underscoring their influence on plant development and productivity. Furthermore, we identify inconsistencies in reported plant responses and highlight the importance of crop- and cultivar-specific lighting protocols to improve reproducibility and scalability. By integrating recent experimental data and physiological insights, we propose energy-efficient, spectrum-tailored lighting strategies for optimizing crop outcomes in CEA. The review also outlines emerging technologies—such as real-time light modulation and intelligent control systems—that support sustainable production. These findings collectively contribute to developing smart lighting protocols that improve yield, maintain crop quality, and reduce energy use in future CEA systems.