Rare earth elements: Between technological critical elements and emerging contaminants

Abstract

Recently, significant attention has been directed toward studying the group of Rare Earth Elements (REEs), formed by lanthanides along with yttrium and scandium, due to their critical role in high-technology innovations, agriculture, and healthcare. These elements are also recognized for their valuable function as tracers, serving as effective discriminators for determining the geographical origin of food products and at the same time, proving their high mobility of transfer from the environment to plants and then along the entire food chain. However, recent data also indicate that exposure to REEs may have detrimental health effects, including developmental, cognitive, cardiovascular, and oncological consequences. Beyond their natural ore occurrence, the presence of REEs in the environment and further along the food chain is increasingly influenced by anthropogenic activities, including mining, extraction, uncontrolled waste disposal, and recycling processes. These activities contribute to growing levels of REEs in the environment, with environmental concentrations expected to increase as global demand for REEs is projected to rise exponentially over the next decade. Countries involved in REE production and processing face heightened exposure risks. However, the current geo-economical tensions, which necessitate the diversification of REEs supply sources, require a strict and close investigation of these critical elements’ impact on the environment and human health. While existing literature predominantly concentrates on particular scientific aspects concerning REEs exposure, this perspective review seeks to provide an overview of REEs negative implications along the entire chain, starting from their exploitation need to their propagation along the food chain and the subsequent health consequences.