Between- versus Within-Examinee Variability in Test-Taking Effort and Test Emotions during a Low-Stakes Test

ABSTRACT When tests are low stakes for examinees, meaning there are little to no personal consequences associated with test results, some examinees put little effort into their performance. To understand the causes and consequences of diminished effort, researchers correlate test-taking effort with other variables, such as test-taking emotions and test performance. Most studies correlate examinees’ overall level of test-taking effort with other variables, with fewer studies considering variables related to changing effort levels during testing. To understand if fluctuations in effort during testing relate to fluctuations in emotions, we collected effort and emotions (anger, boredom, emotionality, enjoyment, pride, worry) data from 768 university students three times during a low-stakes institutional accountability test. Examinees greatly varied in their average levels of effort and average levels of emotions during testing; relatively less variability was observed in these variables during testing. Average levels of emotions were predictive of effort, but fluctuations in emotions during testing were not. Our findings indicate that researchers should consider the proportion of intraindividual and interindividual variability in effort when considering predictors of test-taking effort.