On the integration of Chinese, Tibetan, exoteric and esoteric Buddhism in the Tangut Kingdom

ABSTRACT This article analyzes four Tibetan Buddhist texts or groups of texts written in Chinese from the Tangut period (1038–1227), in order to demonstrate the distinctive character of Tangut Buddhism as a blend of Sino-Tibetan and exoteric–esoteric Buddhist traditions. The four (groups of) texts are: (1) The texts related to the Mahāmudrā teachings in the Dacheng yaodao miji 大乘要道密集 [The Secret Collection of Works on the Essential Path of Mahāyāna]; And three (groups of) texts from the Khara-Khoto Collection: (2) The Chisong shengfomu boreduo xinjing yaomen 持誦聖佛母般若多心經要門 [Pith Instruction of Practicing and Reciting the Heart Sūtra of the Saintly Mother of Prajñāpāramitā]: (3) The Yuhushen qiuxiu 欲護神求脩 [Invocation and Practice of the Protector of the Desire (Realm)] and Dahei qiuxiu bing zuofa 大黑求脩并作法 [Invocation and Practice of Mahākāla]: (4) The Chinese and Tangut versions of the Sizi kongxingmu jiwen 四字空行母記文 [Commentary on the (Manual of) Four-Syllable Ḍākinī]. These four (groups of) texts reflect the vigorous contributions made by Tangut Buddhist masters to integrate Chinese, Tibetan, exoteric and esoteric Buddhism. They exemplify how Tangut Buddhism possesses ecceletic characteristics of different Buddhist traditions.