Physical Exercise Interventions for Emerging Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is characterized by deficits in executive functioning (e.g., working memory, response inhibition, and organization; Willcutt, Doyle, Nigg, Faraone, & Pennington, 2005). Inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity result in impairments in academic, occupational, and social functioning (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013). The primary treatments for ADHD include psychosocial, pharmacological, and combined treatments. Despite the well-documented effectiveness of these interventions, there are limitations to their use. Although both pharmacotherapy and psychosocial treatments are efficacious during active treatment (Knight, Rooney, & ChronisTuscano, 2008; Spencer et al., 1996), few individuals receive long-term treatment, resulting in limited, if any, sustained effects (Molina et al., 2009). One explanation for the transient benefits of current treatments is that they target symptoms and functional impairments rather than the neural mechanisms that underlie the disorder (Berwid & Halperin, 2012). In response to this, researchers have begun to consider other forms of interventions to directly impact these underlying deficits. Physical exercise has received increasing attention with the current obesity epidemic (e.g., Davis et al., 2011). The benefits of physical exercise include improving medical problems (e.g., obesity, diabetes) and psychological difficulties (e.g., anxiety, depression; Hillman, Erickson, & Kramer, 2008). A growing body of research suggests physical exercise has powerful effects on neurocognitive, psychological, and academic functioning (Hillman et al., 2008; Trost, Owen, Bauman, Sallis, & Brown, 2002). Emerging from this burgeoning evidence, mental health researchers have begun to explore exercise as an avenue by which mental health treatment outcomes can be enhanced. Among individuals with ADHD, exercise may not only improve cognitive performance (Berwid & Halperin, 2012; Gapin, Labban, & Etnier, 2011), but