The Battle of the Astronomers: Johann Adam Schall von Bell and Ferdinand Verbiest at the Court of the Celestial Emperors (1660–1670)

The paper is focused on the two most outstanding figures among the Jesuit missionaries in seventeenth-century China: Johann Adam Schall von Bell and Ferdinand Verbiest. Schall aimed to introduce the telescope into Chinese astronomy, which was traditionally based on naked-eye observation and calculation. With the advent of the Qing dynasty, he became head of the Mathematical Board and director of the Imperial Observatory. Verbiest was called upon in 1660 to assist Schall in his project of reforming the Chinese traditional calendar. The political situation changed in 1661, with the Empire ruled by a regency hostile to the Jesuits, as were most of the mandarins at the observatory. This was the difficult context of the famous dispute between Yang Guangxian, Wu Mingxuan, and the two Jesuit mathematicians to compare the merits of Western and Chinese astronomy, which lasted from 1664 to 1669. What happened was more than a scientific contest and a court conspiracy: it was a cultural confrontation between the Jesuits and the traditionalist side of the ruling elite, which regarded the Europeans and their increasing influence as a threat for the Empire.