Thermal processing methods and acrylamide formation in grain-based foods: a focus on temperature, time, and moisture

Acrylamide is a heat-induced chemical classified as a probable human carcinogen (Group 2A) and is widely detected in cereal-based foods subjected to high-temperature processing. Its formation primarily occurs through the Maillard reaction and is strongly influenced by processing parameters. This review aims to synthesize current evidence on how temperature, time, and moisture conditions during thermal processing affect acrylamide formation in grain-based products, with an emphasis on jointly evaluating these key processing parameters. Beyond describing formation mechanisms, the review highlights the dietary contribution of these products to consumer exposure and evaluates how processing parameters translate into variations in intake levels. By providing comparative evidence across various cooking practices, this work supports the optimization of processing conditions and identifies critical gaps in integrating"temperature–time–moisture" relationships and consumer exposure. Ultimately, this review offers a unified, process-based perspective, providing practical recommendations for both industrial stakeholders and public health optimization. Acrylamide levels generally increase with higher temperatures, longer heating times, and reduced moisture, particularly in dry-heat methods such as baking, frying, and roasting. Although some studies report a decline in acrylamide at extreme temperatures, these conditions typically compromise product quality, and research on this phenomenon remains limited. Moisture plays a critical role: lower-temperature, moist-heat treatments tend to inhibit acrylamide formation, while prolonged high-temperature exposure promotes it. Understanding the interaction between temperature, time, and moisture during cereal processing is crucial for effectively reducing acrylamide formation while maintaining product quality. This review not only highlights practical mitigation strategies applicable in industrial and home settings but also identifies key gaps in current knowledge, emphasizing the need for standardized, multidisciplinary research to optimize food safety and public health outcomes.