Toxicity and biosafety optimizing in perovskite nanomaterials

Perovskite nanomaterials demonstrate good optoelectronic properties with broad applications in photovoltaics, light emitting diode, and biomedicine. However, their potential biological toxicity poses significant challenges for safe use. This review systematically examines toxicity mechanisms primarily driven by lead ion release, which induces oxidative stress, DNA damage, and organ-specific pathological changes across respiratory, cardiovascular, hepatic, renal, gastrointestinal, and neural systems. Additionally, the toxicity of lead-free alternatives and organic cations is discussed. We highlight material engineering strategies such as surface modification, encapsulation, and elemental substitution to mitigate biosafety risks. Furthermore, regulatory frameworks and risk assessment methods are outlined to guide safe deployment. This work aims to bridge the gap between high performance and biosafety, providing critical insights for developing biocompatible perovskite-based technologies.