Sustainable intensification: time to question the goal of ever-increasing agricultural production

Soils play a pivotal role in agroecosystems by supporting multiple functions such as primary production, nutrient cycling, water regulation, climate regulation, and habitat for biodiversity. This study examines how land use intensity (LUI) affects soil multifunctionality in agricultural systems, with a focus on grasslands and croplands under conventional, organic and semi-natural management. Our approach uniquely combines detailed management information from commercial farms with a detailed assessment of multiple soil functions. By restricting the study to a narrow geographic area in the east of the Netherlands, we were able to isolate the effects of management from pedoclimatic variability, thus providing one of the first empirical tests of how LUI shapes multifunctionality under real farming conditions. Soil samples from 45 grasslands and 37 croplands were analysed. Soil functions were quantified using the Soil Navigator Decision Support System, and LUI was calculated from 11 management indicators for grasslands and croplands separately. Results showed that higher LUI improved primary production and nutrient cycling functions but negatively impacted climate regulation and habitat for biodiversity. Organic fields, defined here as those not receiving synthetic fertilisers or pest control, exhibited lower LUI, achieving better biodiversity and climate regulation but at a cost of productivity. Trade-offs were evident between primary production and biodiversity and climate regulation, while synergies were found between habitat for biodiversity and climate regulation. These findings emphasise the complexity of balancing soil functions at field scale, challenging claims that productivity can increase without trade-offs. We conclude that, rather than systematically aiming at intensifying production sustainably at field or farm scale, more attention should be given to balancing food availability with landscape management demands at regional to global scales.