Use and perception of cultural ecosystem services from green spaces: A case from Kolkata Megacity Region (India)

Green spaces offer vital cultural ecosystem services (ES), and these ES are essential for human health and well-being. But the green spaces in cities are increasingly threatened by rapid urbanization, particularly in developing countries. This study aims to explore the use and perception of cultural ES from green spaces in Kolkata Megacity Region (KMR). A number of statistical analyses such as Kruskal-Wallis test, Correlation Analysis, Hierarchical Cluster Analysis, and Principal Component Analysis (PCA), were applied to assess patterns of ES use and perceptions from green spaces. The results showed that green spaces were primarily valued for recreation, social interactions, aesthetics, and health benefits. Recreation ES showed strong correlations with social relations (0.868, 0.775), inspiration (0.878, 0.751), aesthetics (0.896, 0.83), sense of place (0.987, 0.851), and health (0.78, 0.853). Hierarchical clustering revealed that 58.33% of ES in Rabindra Sarabor fell into Cluster 2, while Eco Park had the highest share in Cluster 1 (37.50 %). PCA indicated that PC₁ and PC₂ explained 69 % and 31 % of the variance in Rabindra Sarabor, while Eco Park showed 54% total variance. The findings highlight the importance of integrating cultural ES into urban planning for enhanced human well-being. Strategic landscape management can ensure the sustainability of these spaces, fostering community engagement and environmental resilience.