Urological investigations of haematuria

Visible and non-visible haematuria have a wide range of possible causes including urinary tract malignancy, stone disease, infection, trauma or nephrological causes. Systematic investigation is recommended to determine the cause and management of haematuria, although up to 60% of patients will have no cause identified.

This article outlines the different causes of both visible and non-visible haematuria; investigation strategies; when to refer to urology and/or nephrology for further assessment; and areas of future development and research. The evidence behind current practice in the UK is discussed and guidelines explored. Clear explanations are given of investigation and imaging modalities.