International comparison of green equality using a benchmarking framework: Insights from 6 global cities

While the importance of equitable access to urban greenspaces in improving urban livability is well recognized, a globally comparable understanding of green equality remains elusive due to the focus of prior studies on individual cities or fragmented indicators. The present study proposes a novel benchmarking framework that integrates availability, accessibility, social equality and spatial inequality, thereby, enabling systematic cross-city analysis. A cross-national investigation of six global cities has exposed a significant disparity between the extent of greenspace provision and the outcomes achieved in terms of equality. Key findings demonstrate that an increase in greenspace availability does not guarantee spatial equality. This underscores the importance of equitable distribution over mere quantity. The framework identifies London as the leading performer in multidimensional equality, while Tokyo demonstrates excellence in park equality, reflecting their divergent urban histories and governance priorities. Cross-city comparisons suggest three transferable strategies for improving green equality. The proposed framework establishes empirically grounded benchmarks for comparative urban sustainability governance across different national contexts.