Human activity-driven spatiotemporal interactions of ecosystem services in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region: Insights from multi-source remote sensing data and multi-scale analysis

This study investigates land use changes and six key ecosystem services (ESs) in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region from 2000 to 2020. In contrast to previous studies that focus solely on static ES patterns or single-scale assessments, this research integrates both pixel- and county-scale analyses to capture the spatial heterogeneity and nested dynamics of trade-offs and synergies. Additionally, natural gradients (elevation, precipitation, temperature) and anthropogenic exposure indicators (population density, built-up area ratio, and carbon emissions) are incorporated to explore the combined effects of natural and human influences on ES dynamics. Carbon sequestration in the Yanshan and Taihangshan regions increased by 59.87 %, and soil retention capacity by 97.84 %, demonstrating the significant impact of local ecological protection efforts. A notable negative correlation was observed between food production and other ecosystem services in agricultural areas. Synergistic benefits at the county level underscore the success of ecological restoration. Human-induced evapotranspiration (PET), population density (POP), and climatic water deficit (DEF) emerged as the most influential drivers of ES changes. Policymakers must innovate land-use strategies and align ecological conservation efforts to mitigate the adverse effects of urbanization. This study provides both a theoretical and practical foundation for sustainable development in the region.