Key challenges in forest restoration and adaptation in Spain: Expert-based solutions for a resilient future

The growing momentum for ecological restoration presents a critical opportunity to tackle environmental crises, especially in the context of climate change adaptation. With the newly adopted European Nature Restoration Regulation (NRR) requiring Member States to develop national restoration plans, Spain stands as a paradigmatic case due to its long history of restoration efforts and its location in the Mediterranean, a recognized climate change hotspot. Understanding the barriers and opportunities involved is essential to ensure effective implementation. Drawing on the knowledge of over 60 national experts and applying the Delphi method, we (1) ranked 45 key political, social, economic, technical and environmental challenges limiting climate-adaptive forest restoration in Spain; (2) analyzed how demographic and professional factors influenced perceptions of these challenges; and (3) co-developed strategic recommendations to overcome them. Experts identified economic and political barriers such as short-term budgets, undervaluation of ecosystem services, perverse incentives, political short-termism, bureaucracy and policy fragmentation as the most limiting, ranking approximately 1.5 points higher than the most significant technical or environmental challenges. Perceptions significantly varied by gender, age and geographic location. Key solutions include the creation of independent restoration agencies with stable funding, legal and policy reforms, financial incentives for landowners (valuation of ecosystem services) and stronger private sector involvement. Our findings highlight the need for an integrated, cross-sectoral approach that aligns governance, financing and stakeholder participation. These insights offer a valuable foundation for informing Spain’s National Restoration Plan and contribute to broader European efforts to ensure the long-term success of restoration initiatives.