Photoelectrochemical biosensors for cardiovascular disease biomarkers: Advances, challenges, and clinical prospects

With the aging of the population and changes in modern lifestyles, the prevalence of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) continues to rise globally, posing a serious threat to human health. The optimal therapeutic window for treating severe CVDs such as acute myocardial infarction (AMI) is extremely narrow, limiting the treatment outcomes. The emergence of in vitro diagnostic technology has significantly improved the diagnostic compliance rate of AMI and elevated the treatment effects. In recent years, an emerging analytical method, photoelectrochemical (PEC) biosensor, has drawn much attention because of its excellent sensitivity, good stability, and easy operation. Their clinical translation is expected to shorten the screening and diagnosis cycle, extend the therapeutic window, and significantly benefit patients. Despite rapid progress in the past decade, existing reviews mainly focus on general PEC sensing principles or material innovations, while comprehensive analyses of disease-specific biomarker detection and translational challenges remain limited. This review addresses these gaps by systematically summarizing recent advances of PEC biosensors for CVDs biomarker detection, critically comparing detection strategies, and discussing opportunities for clinical application. We also look ahead at the key research needs, including multiplex detection, integration with wearable devices, and real-world validation, thereby offering new perspectives for advancing the practical application of PEC biosensors in CVDs diagnostics.