Mapping public behavioral intentions for mitigation and adaptation to air pollution in China

Active public engagement in air pollution coping behaviors is essential for sustained air quality improvements. These behaviors fall into two categories: mitigation behaviors (reducing emissions), and adaptation behaviors (minimizing health risks), with the latter subdivided into in-situ adaptations (e.g., mask-wearing) and mobility adaptations (e.g., modifying traffic modes). Mitigation and adaptation behaviors are shaped by distinct mechanisms. However, existing research has primarily focused on adaptation behaviors without systematically comparing across different behavior types. Applying adaptation-based insights to other types may undermine policy effectiveness. Moreover, most studies rely on data from limited cities, hindering understanding of national landscape and spatial variability. To address these gaps, we conducted a nationwide survey of 7457 participants across 28 Chinese provinces. Structural equation modeling was used to compare determinants of mitigation and adaptation intentions. Multilevel regression and poststratification (MRP) generated the first city-level estimates in China. Our results revealed three common drivers that consistently enhance public engagement across behaviors: perceived risk severity, perceived benefits of clean air, and socioeconomic status. However, mitigation and adaptation intentions followed distinct cognitive pathways-adaptation was shaped by dread and risk controllability, while mitigation was driven by knowledge and trust. Within adaptation, in-situ and mobility behaviors showed divergent determinants. Objective pollution indirectly shaped in-situ adaptations via perceived risk, and exerted both direct negative and indirect positive effects on other intentions. Furthermore, MRP analysis revealed three city-level patterns: economic development-driven, pollution-driven, and jointly-driven behaviors. These findings provide practical guidance for designing targeted interventions to enhance public engagement in future clean air initiatives.