Inflammation and immune biomarkers: new frontiers in understanding and managing diabetes complications.

Chronic inflammation and immune dysregulation are central to the development and progression of diabetes complications, redefining existing paradigms of disease pathogenesis and management. Key pro-inflammatory cytokines, including tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), contribute to tissue injury in the vasculature, kidneys, retina, and peripheral nerves by activating systemic and local inflammatory cascades. Emerging evidence highlights the utility of haematological inflammatory biomarkers such as the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio (PLR), systemic immune-inflammation index (SII), and systemic inflammation response index (SIRI) as accessible, cost-effective predictors of risk for both microvascular and macrovascular complications in diabetes. These markers reflect the ongoing immune activation linked to insulin resistance, beta-cell dysfunction, and oxidative stress. Integrating these biomarkers with genomic and proteomic data enhances precision medicine approaches for complication risk stratification and individualized therapy. Novel anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory treatments, alongside lifestyle interventions, show promise in mitigating chronic inflammation's effects, potentially reducing the burden of diabetic complications beyond conventional glycaemic control. This review critically appraises the molecular mechanisms of immune-mediated damage in diabetes, evaluates the prognostic and diagnostic value of emerging inflammatory biomarkers, and discusses therapeutic advances aimed at targeting inflammation. Challenges remain in optimizing biomarker validation and translating molecular insights into routine clinical practice. Ultimately, embedding inflammation-focused strategies into diabetes management promises to enhance preventive and therapeutic outcomes, alleviating the global impact of diabetes complications.