Universal nonlinear dynamics in damped and driven physical systems: From Pendula via Josephson junctions to power grids

Understanding the collective behavior of dynamical systems is essential for explaining various emergent phenomena in natural and engineered settings. A key step in this process is formulating an appropriate mathematical description of the individual systems and network of systems. In this context, a range of physical systems is considered here, including the classical pendula, superconducting Josephson junctions, power grids, and various others. Despite the diversity of the systems in terms of physical structure and their application domains, they exhibit strikingly similar dynamical features, namely, phase dynamics governed by inertia and damping, and in their response to external forcing. This observation creates interest and motivates a search for a unified theoretical framework capable of capturing the fundamentals of their dynamical behaviors exhibited across the systems. This review critically examines the up-to-date research activities on the dynamics of the second-order phase oscillator, henceforth claimed here as a universality class by its own merits as a simple nonlinear dynamical model representing a broad class of physical systems. It offers a common mathematical framework to develop a comprehensive understanding, from a general perspective, that bridges, the theoretical and experimental observations of pendulum motion, Josephson junctions, and power grids and their collective behaviors. While each of these systems has been discussed in disparate physical contexts, their underlying mathematical structures reveal strong commonalities. In particular, we highlight the importance of analyzing these systems through the lens of nonlinear phase dynamics to uncover their shared mechanisms and system-specific variety of behaviors as well. This survey mainly focuses on some specific interrelated themes: (i) collective phenomena and emergent synchronization; (ii) the role of heterogeneity in terms of system parameters and effects of noise on the emergent dynamics; (iii) multi-stability and complex transient regimes; (iv) the integration of machine learning for model discovery, control, and prediction; and (v) the broader applicability of phase oscillator models across diverse domains beyond the canonical systems considered here. By systematically comparing the dynamical behaviors of the varied physical systems within a cohesive mathematical framework of second-order phase oscillators, this review seeks for the universal and distinctive features of nonlinear dynamics of the three systems, their collective behaviors such as emergent synchrony, partial synchrony, or chimera states, and specifically explains real-life phenomena, and crowd synchrony that may lead to a collapse of a footbridge and the failure of a power grid. Besides our main emphasis on these systems, brief notes have been added on other systems where this second-order phase model explains their dynamical properties. A broad synthesis on the topic will not only deepen our theoretical understanding but also suggest any design and control of complex dynamical systems in both natural and engineered settings.